ДНК – не приговор [заметки]

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Интервал

1

Из выступления Билла Клинтона 26 июня 2000 г. (http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0006/26/bn.01.html).

2

Больше о будоражащих перспективах генной инженерии см.: Silver, L. M. (2007). Remaking Eden: How genetic engineering and cloning will transform the American family. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.

3

Об идентификации мусорящих на улице людей по их ДНК и владельцев собак по ДНК их питомцев см.: Mohdin, A. (23.05.2015). New campaign profiles litterers from their DNA and posts reconstructions of their faces. IFLScience. http://www.iflscience.com/environment/could-you-be-next-face-litter; Lacitis, E. (03.04.2015). Dog-poop DNA tests nail non-scoopers. Seattle Times (http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/dog-poop-dna-tests-nail-non-scoopers/).

4

Конечно, если бы продюсеры программы серьезно относились к определению того, действительно ли этот образец принадлежал Элвису, им достаточно было бы найти образец ДНК его живого родственника.

5

Многие варианты гена MYBPC3 связаны с развитием наследственной гипертрофической кардиомиопатии, которая, по мнению доктора Кингсмора с небольшой вероятностью могла привести к смерти Элвиса. Например, есть аутосомная доминантная мутация гена MYBPC3, которая часто влияет на развитие гипертрофической кардиомиопатии (см.: Dhandapany, P. S., Sadayappan, S., Xue, Y., Powell, G. T., Rani, D. S., Nallari, P., et al. (2009). A common MYBPC3 (cardiac myosin binding protein C) variant associated with cardiomyopathies in South Asia. Nature Genetics, 41, 187–191). Но у Элвиса не было ни одного из патогенных вариантов гена MYBPC3. Вариант Элвиса, который обсуждался в шоу, с нуклеотидом G в RSID193922380, не является сильным предиктором гипертрофической кардиомиопатии и в настоящее время плохо изучен. Его рассматривали только в нескольких медицинских работах наряду с большим количеством различных ДНК-маркеров вдоль одного и того же гена. Разные версии о связи варианта Элвиса с семейной гипертрофической кардиомиопатией колеблются от «сомнительно» до «вероятно» (см.: Rodriguez-Garcia, M. I., Monserrat, L., Ortiz, M., Fernández, X., Cazón, L., Núñez, L., et al. (30.04.2010). Screening mutations in myosin binding protein C3 gene in a cohort of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. BMC Medical Genetics, 11, 67. doi: 10.1186/1471-2350-11-67; Ehlermann, P., Weichenhan, D., Zehelein, J., Steen, H., Pribe, R., Zeller, R., et al. (28.10.2008). Adverse events in families with hypertrophic or dilated cardiomyopathy and mutations in the MYBPC3 gene. BMC Medical Genetics, 9, 95. doi: 10.1186/1471-2350-9-95; Olivotto, I., Kassem, H., & Girolami, F. (2011). Microvascular function is selectively impaired in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and sarcomere myofilament gene mutations. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 58, 839–848; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/?term=rs193922380; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/variation/36607/).

7

В программе нашли вариант на 19-й хромосоме, но самые сильные предикторы находятся в другом месте (Locke, A. E., Kahali, B., Berndt, S. I., Justice, A. E., Pers, T. H., Day, F. R., et al. (2015). Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology. Nature, 518, 197–206).

8

В программе нашли вариант на 1-й хромосоме, но есть много других предикторов. Хотя в последнее время их надежность поставлена под сомнение (Palotie, A., Anttila, V., Winsvold, B. S., Gormley, P., Kurth, T., Bettella, F., McMahon, G., et al. (2013). Genome-wide analysis identifies new susceptibility loci for migraine. Nature Genetics, 45, 912–916; De Vries, B., Anttila, V., Freilinger, T., Wessman, M., Kaunisto, M. A., Kallela, M., et al. (2015). Systematic re-evaluation of genes from candidate gene association studies in migraine using a large genome-wide association data set. Cephalalagia).

9

В программе нашли вариант на 17-й хромосоме, но более сильные предикторы находятся в других хромосомах (см.: Bailey, J. N. C., Loomis, S. J., Kang, J. H., Allingham, R. R., Gharahkhani, P., Khor, C. C., et al. (2015). Genome-wide association analysis identifies TXNRD2, ATXN2, and FOXC1 as susceptibility loci for primary open-angle glaucoma. Nature Genetics, 48, 189–194).

10

Guralnick, P. (2000). The unmaking of Elvis Presley. New York, NY: Back Bay Books.

13

Dar-Nimrod, I., Cheung, B. Y., Ruby, M. B., & Heine, S. J. (2014). Can merely learning about obesity genes lead to weight gain?Appetite, 81, 269–276.

17

Цитата из интервью CNN, 11 февраля 2010 г. (http://www.cnn.com/2010/SHOWBIZ/02/11/donald.trump.marriage.apprentice/).

20

Например, вся редакционная коллегия американского журнала Genetics одобряла евгенику (см.: Paul D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press). Подробнее о связи между ранними исследованиями в области генетики человека и евгеникой см. главу 7.

22

См.: Metzl, J. F. (10 октября 2014 г.). The genetics epidemic: The revolution in DNA science and what to do about it. Foreign Affairs (https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2014-10-10/genetics-epidemic); Kahn, Jennifer (09.11.2015). The Crispr quandary. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/15/magazine/the-crispr-quandary.html?action=click&pgtype=Homepage®ion=CColumn&module=MostEmailed&version=Full&src=me&WT.nav=MostEmailed&_r=0).

23

Более подробная информация о жизни Менделя: Mawer, S. (2006). Gregor Mendel: Planting the seeds of genetics. New York, NY: Abrams; Henig, R. M. (2000). The monk in the garden. New York, NY: Mariner; Orel, V. (1996). Gregor Mendel: The first geneticist. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

25

Wu, Q., Zhang, T., Cheng, J.-F., Kim, Y., Grimwood, J. H., Schmutz, J., et al. (2001). Comparative DNA sequence analysis of mouse and human protocaherin gene clusters. Genome Research, 11, 389–404.

26

Welle, S. (1999). Human protein metabolism. New York, NY: Springer.

28

Lamason, R. L., Mohideen, M. A., Mest, J. R., Wong, A. C., Norton, H. L., Aros, M. C., et al. (2005). SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans. Science, 310, 1782–1786.

29

Dias, B. G., & Ressler, K. J. (2014). Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 89–96.

30

Galton, F. (1875). The history of twins, as a criterion of the relative powers of nature and nurture. Frasers Magazine, 12, 566–576.

31

Visscher, P. M. (2008). Sizing up human height variation. Nature Genetics, 40, 489–490.

32

Simonson, I., & Sela, A. (2011). On the heritability of consumer decision making: An exploratory approach for studying genetic effects on judgment and choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 951–966; Plomin, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., & Fulker, D. W. (1990). Individual differences in television viewing in early childhood: Nature as well as nurture. Psychological Science, 1, 371–377; Bouchard, T. J. (2004). Genetic influence on human psychological traits: A survey. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 148–151; Eaves, L. J., Eysenck, H. J., & Martin, N. G. (1989). Genes, culture and personality: An empirical approach. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; Martin, N. G., Eaves, L. J., Heath, A. R., Jardine, R., Feingold, L. M., & Eysenck, H. J. (1986). Transmission of social attitudes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 83, 4364–4368; Eley, T. C., Lichtenstein, P., & Stevenson, J. (1999). Sex differences in the etiology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior: Results from two twin studies. Child Development, 70, 155–168; Iervolino, A. C., Perroud, N., Fullana, M. A., Guipponi, M., Cherkas, L., Collier, D. A., et al. (2009). Prevalence and heritability of compulsive hoarding: A twin study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 1156–1161; Pedersen, O. B., Axel, S., Rostgaard, K., Erikstrup, C., Edgren, G., Nielsen, K. R., et al. (2015). The heritability of blood donation: A population-based nationwide twin study. Transfusion, 55, 2169–2174.

33

Kendler, K. S., & Karkowski-Shuman, L. (1997). Stressful life events and genetic liability to major depression: Genetic control of exposure to the environment?Psychological Medicine, 27, 539–547.

34

Общую критику результатов генетики поведения см.: Charney, E. (2012). Behavior genetics and postgenomics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 331–358.

35

Turkheimer, E. (2000). Three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 160–164.

36

Turkheimer, E. (1998). Heritability and biological explanation. Psychological Review, 105, 782–791.

37

Polderman, T. J. C., Benyamin, B., de Leeuw, C. A., Sullivan, P. F., van Bochoven, A., Visscher, P. M., et al. (2015). Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nature Genetics. doi: 10.1038/ng.3285.

38

Hugot, J.-P., Chamaillard, M., Zouali, H., Lesage, S., Cézard, J. P., Belaiche, J., et al. (2001). Association of NOD2 leucine-rich repeat variants with susceptibility to Crohn’s disease. Nature, 411, 599–603.

39

Franke, A., McGovern, D. P., Barrett, J. C., Wang, K., Radford-Smith, G. L., Ahmad, T., et al. (2010). Genome-wide meta-analysis increases to 71 the number of confirmed Crohn’s disease susceptibility loci. Nature Genetics, 42, 1118–1125.

40

Worden, G. (2002). Mütter Museum of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. New York, NY: Blast Books.

41

Song, G.-A., Kim, H.-J., Woo, K.-M., Baek, J.-H., Kim, G.-S., Choi, J.-Y., & Ryoo, H.-M. (2010). Molecular consequences of the ACVR1 R206H mutation of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressive. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 285, 22542–22553.

42

Заболевания, наследуемые по закону Менделя. Прим. науч. ред.

43

Day, N., & Holmes, L. B. (1973). The incidence of genetic disease in a university hospital population. American Journal of Human Genetics, 25, 237–246.

44

Увы, способы возникновения даже моногенных болезней могут быть более сложными, чем простое представление о том, что один ген вызывает заболевание (см.: Badano, J. L., & Katsanis, N. (2002). Beyond Mendel: An evolving view of human genetic disease transmission. Nature Reviews Genetics, 3, 779–789).

45

Тщательный анализ различий между сильным и слабым генетическим влиянием см.: Turkheimer, E. (1998). Heritability and biological explanation. Psychological Review, 105, 782–791.

46

Chabris, C. F., Lee, J. J., Cesarini, D., Benjamin, D. J., & Laibson, D. I. (2015). The fourth law of behavioral genetics. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 304–312.

47

Dobbs, D. (21 мая 2015 г.). What is your DNA worth?BuzzFeed (http://www.buzzfeed.com/daviddobbs/weighing-the-promises-of-big-genomics#.vjnnjJzwK).

48

Visscher, P. M. (2008). Sizing up human height variation. Nature Genetics, 40, 489–490.

49

McEvoy, B. P., & Visscher, P. M. (2009). Genetics of human height. Economics & Human Biology, 7, 294–306.

50

См.: Weedon, M. N., Lettre, G., Freathy, R. M., Lindgren, C. M., Voight, B. F., Perry, J. R., et al. (2007). A common variant of HMGA2 is associated with adult and childhood height in the general population. Nature Genetics, 39, 1245–1250.

51

Goldstein, D. B. (2009). Common genetic variation and human traits. New England Journal of Medicine, 360 (17), 1696–1698.

52

Yang, J., Benyamin, B., McEvoy, B. P., Gordon, S., Henders, A. K., Nyholt, D. R., et al. (2010). Common SNPs explain a large proportion of the heritability for human height. Nature Genetics, 42, 565–569. В другом исследовании обнаружили, что 697 вариантов могут объяснить 20 % наследуемости роста (Wood, A. R., Esko, T., Yang, J., Vedantam, S., Pers, T. H., Gustafsson, S., et al. (2014). Defining the role of common variation in the genomic and biological architecture of adult human height. Nature Genetics, 46, 1173–1186).

53

Johnson, W. (2010). Understanding the genetics of intelligence: Can height help? Can corn oil?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 177–182.

54

Довод в пользу «генов роста» голландцев: доказано, что у более высоких голландских мужчин (но не женщин) было больше потомков в отличие от американцев, где больше потомков оставляли более низкие мужчины (Stulp, G., Barrett, L., Tropf, F. C., & Mills, M. (2015). Does natural selection favour taller stature among the tallest people on earth?Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 282, 20150211. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0211).

55

Komlos, J., & Lauderdale, B. E. (2007). The mysterious trend in human heights in the 20th century. American Journal of Human Biology, 34, 206–215.

56

Greulich, W. W. (1957). A comparison of the physical growth and development of American-born and native Japanese children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15, 489–515.

57

Komlos, J., & Breitfelder, A. (2007). Are Americans shorter (partly) because they are fatter? A comparison of US and Dutch children’s height and BMI values. Annals of Human Biology, 34, 593–606.

58

Wiley, A. S. (2005). Does milk make children grow? Relationships between milk consumption and height in NHANES 1999–2002. American Journal of Human Biology, 17, 425–441.

59

По моим расчетам, корреляция между cредним ростом жителей какой-либо страны (более надежные данные – для мужчин) и национальным потреблением молока в пределах континентов находится в диапазоне от 0,3 до 0,7. В то время как во всем мире между странами корреляция составляет 0,82. Cм. данные о сравнении роста мужчин (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template: Average_height_around_the_world) и годового потребления молока (http://chartsbin.com/view/1491).

60

Funatogawa, I., Funatogawa, T., Nakao, M., Karita, K., & Yano, E. (2009). Changes in body mass index by birth cohort in Japanese adults: Results from the National Nutrition survey of Japan 1956–2005. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, 83–92.

61

Takahashi, E. (1984). Secular trend in milk consumption and growth in Japan. Human Biology, 56, 427–437.

62

Bogin, B. (1999). Patterns of human growth(2>nded.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

63

Lamason, R. L., Mohideen, M. A., Mest, J. R., Wong, A. C., Norton, H. L., Aros, M. C., et al. (2005). SlC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans. Science, 310, 1782–1786.

64

Примеры того, как люди стараются избегать отчетливого понимания чего-либо и выбирают более легкий путь, см.: Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69–81; and Ratneshwar, S., & Chaiken, S. (1991). Comprehension’s role in persuasion: The case of its moderating effect on the persuasive impact of source cues. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 52–62.

65

Jablonka, E., & Lamb, M. J. (2006). Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. См. также: Strohman, R. (1995). Linear genetics, non-linear epigenetics: Complementary approaches to understanding complex diseases. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 30 (4), 273–282.

66

Sturtevant, A. H. (1965). A history of genetics. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

67

Менделю действительно повезло с результатами его исследований. В случае с горохом они были настолько ясными, что ученого обвинили в подделке данных. Рональд Фишер, знаменитый специалист по статистике и генетик, наиболее упорно ставит под сомнение достоверность выводов Менделя (Fisher, R. A. (1936). Has Mendel’s work been rediscovered?Annals of Science, 1, 115–137).

68

Henig, R. M. (2000). The monk in the garden. New York, NY: Mariner.

69

См.: Lombroso, C. (2006). Criminal Man (M. Gibson & N. H. Rafter, Trans.). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. P. 5. Это издание содержит новый перевод с введением и заметками переводчиков Мэри Гибсон и Николь Хан Рафтер.

70

Macnamara, J. (1986). A border dispute. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

71

Locke, J. (1671/1959). An essay concerning human understanding, Vol. 2. New York, NY: Dover.

72

Medin, D. L., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.),Similarity and analogical reasoning(p. 179–195). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

73

Более подробно об эссенциализме см.: Gelman, S. A. (2003). The essential child: Origins of essentialism in everyday thought. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

74

Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P. (1989). You are what you eat: Applying the demand-free «impressions» technique to an unacknowledged belief. Ethos, 17, 50–69.

75

См. Goldman, L. R. (Ed.). (1999). The anthropology of cannibalism. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.

76

Я благодарен Франсиско Гил-Уайту за описание эссенциалистского мышления. Более подробный анализ роли сущностей в естественных видах см.: Gil-White, F. J. (2001). Are ethnic groups biological «species» to the human brain? Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515–554.

77

Ereshefsky, M. (2004). The poverty of the Linnaean hierarchy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

79

Sylvia, C., & Novak, W. (1997). A change of heart. New York, NY: Warner Books.

80

Inspector, I., Kutz, Y., & David, D. (2004). Another person’s heart: Magical and rational thinking in the psychological adaptation to heart transplantation. The Israeli Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 41, 161–173.

81

Hood, B. M., Gjersoe, N. L., Donnelly, K., Byers, A., & Itakura, S. (2011). Moral contagion attitudes towards potential organ transplants in British and Japanese adults. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 11, 269–286.

83

Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). The contagion concept in adult thinking in the United States: Transmission of germs of interpersonal influence. Ethos, 22, 158–186.

84

Психологи обычно предполагают, что большинство психологических явлений универсальны. Поэтому они редко проводят более дорогостоящие и сложные исследования, необходимые для изучения культурных различий способов мышления. Чаще всего изучаются удобные группы, которые, как правило, составляют американские студенты, посещающие лекции по психологии. Студенты американских колледжей более чем в 4000 раз чаще участвуют в психологических экспериментах в сравнении со взрослыми людьми из незападных стран. В психологии преобладают американские исследования, а также работы ученых из других англоязычных стран, таких как Великобритания, Канада и Австралия. Поэтому в случае со многими психологическими явлениями мы действительно не очень хорошо понимаем, насколько похожи или различаются способы мышления во всем мире. Исследование эссенциализма, напротив, было глобальным предприятием (Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83).

85

Gil-White, F. J. (2001). Are ethnic groups biological «species» to the human brain? Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515–554.

86

Склонность к эссенциалистскому мышлению не так сильна среди представителей разных азиатских культур, таких как Китай, Япония и Индия (хотя ее наличие подтверждено и там), как у людей из Северной Америки (см., например: Choi, I., Nisbett, R. E., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). Causal attribution across cultures: Variation and universality. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 47–63; Rattan, A., Savani, K. S., Naidu, N. V. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Can everyone become highly intelligent? Cultural differences in and societal consequences of beliefs about the universal potential for intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 787–802; and Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D. R., Takata, T., Ide, E., Leung, C., & Matsumoto, H. (2001). Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 599–615).

87

Kraus, M. W., & Keltner, D. (2013). Social class rank, essentialism, and punitive judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 247–261. См. также: Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., Mendoza-Denton, R., Rheinschmidt, M. L., & Kelter, D. (2012). Social class, solipsism, and contextualism: How the rich are different from the poor. Psychological Review, 119, 546–572.

88

Mahalingam, R. (1998). Essentialism, power, and representation of caste: A developmental study. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.

89

Keil, F. C. (1989). Concepts, kinds, and cognitive development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

90

Gelman, S. A., Frazier, B. N., Noles, N. S., Manczak, E. M., & Stilwell, S. M. (2015). How much are Harry Potter’s glasses worth? Children’s monetary evaluation of authentic objects. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 97–117.

91

Atran, S. (1998). Folk biology and the anthropology of science: Cognitive universals and cultural particulars. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 547–569. См. также: Gil-White, F. J. (2001). Are ethnic groups biological «species» to the human brain? Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515–554.

92

Medin, D. L., & Ortony, A. (1989 г.). Psychological essentialism. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.),Similarity and analogical reasoning(p. 179–195). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

93

Цит. по: Jaoff, Leon J. (20 марта 1989 г.). The gene hunt,Time, 62–67.

94

Цит. по статьеNew York Times: Degrees offered in genetic counseling. 1970. 6 Dec. P. 71.

95

Lanie, A. D., Jayaratne, T. E., Sheldon, J. P., Kardia, S. L. R., Anderson, E. S., Feldbaum, M., & Petty, E. M. (2004). Exploring the public understanding of basic genetic concepts. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 13, 305–320.

96

Heyman, G. D., & Gelman, S. A. (2000). Beliefs about the origins of human psychological traits. Developmental Psychology, 36, 663–678.

97

Dar-Nimrod, I., & Heine, S. J. (2011). Genetic essentialism: On the deceptive determinism of DNA. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 800–818.

99

Garcia, J. R., MacKillop, J., Aller, E. L., Merriwether, A. M., Wilson, D. S., & Lum, J. K. (2010). Associations between dopamine D4 receptor gene variation with both infidelity and sexual promiscuity. PLoS ONE5(11), e14162. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014162.

100

См.: Frankena, W. K. (1939). The naturalistic fallacy. Mind, 48, 464–477; Moore, G. E. (1903). Principia ethica. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

101

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Подробный обзор эффектов, связанных с геном 5-HTTLPR, см. в таблице 2 издания: Charney, E., & English, E. (2012). Candidate genes and political behavior. American Political Science Review, 106, 1–34.

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Исследования с использованием как опросов, так и имплицитных методов показали, что трансгендерные подростки отождествляют себя со своим выраженным гендером так же, как и нетрансгендерные (цисгендерные) подростки того же самого выраженного гендера (Olson, K. R., Key, A. C., & Eaton, N. R. (2015). Gender cognition in transgender children. Psychological Science, 26, 467–474).

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216

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Обзор новостей см.: Conrad, P., & Markens, S. (2001). Constructing the «gay gene» in the news: Optimism and skepticism in the US and British press. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine, 5, 373–400.

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Пример дарвиновского парадокса см.: LeVay, S. (2011). Gay, straight, and the reason why. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

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231

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232

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235

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См.: Bieber, I., Dain, H. J., Dince, P. R., Drellich, M. G., Grand, H. G., Gundlach, R. R., et al. (1962). Homosexuality: A psychoanalytic study of male homosexuals. New York, NY: Basic Books.

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См.: Conrad, P., & Markens, S. (2001). Constructing the «gay gene» in the news: Optimism and skepticism in the US and British press. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine, 5, 373–400.

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Sheldon, J. P., Pfeffer, C. A., Jayaratne, T. E., Feldbaum, M., & Petty, E. M. (2007). Beliefs about the etiology of homosexuality and about the ramifications of discovering its possible genetic origin. Journal of Homosexuality, 52, 111–150.

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Mustanski, B. S., Dupree, M. G., Nievergelt, C. M., Bocklandt, S., Schork, N. J., & Hamer, D. H. (2005). A genomewide scan of male sexual orientation. Human Genetics, 116, 272–278; Ramagopalan, S. V., Dyment, D. A., Handunnetthi, L., Rice, G. P., & Ebers, G. C. (2010). A genome-wide scan of male sexual orientation. Journal of Human Genetics, 55, 131–132; Sanders, A. R., Cao, Q., Zhang, J., Badner, J. A., Goldin, L. R., Guroff, J. J., et al. (1998). Genetic linkage study of male homosexual orientation. Toronto, ON: American Psychiatric Association; Rice, G., Anderson, C., Risch, N., & Ebers, G. (1999). Male homosexuality: Absence of linkage to microsatellite markers at Xq28. Science, 284, 665–667. Самое крупное исследование на сегодняшний день воспроизводит оригинальные результаты Хамера, хотя и без указания каких-либо отдельных генов (Sanders, A. R., Martin, E. R., Beecham, G. W., Guo, S., Dawood, K., Rieger, G., et al. (2014). Genome-wide scan demonstrates significant linkage for male sexual orientation. Psychological Medicine, 45, 1379–1388).

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245

Служитель, которому доверяют совершать обрезание в иудаизме. Прим. перев.

246

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Gorondi, P. (10.06.2014). Anti-Semitic, far-right politician’s astonishing transformation after finding out he is a Jew. National Post (http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/06/10/anti-semitic-far-right-politicians-astonishing-transformation-after-finding-out-he-is-a-jew/).

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Gorondi, P. (10.06.2014). Anti-Semitic, far-right politician’s astonishing transformation after finding out he is a Jew. National Post (http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/06/10/anti-semitic-far-right-politicians-astonishing-transformation-after-finding-out-he-is-a-jew/). См. также: Ain, S. (21 октября 2014 г.). New life, New mission for Ex-Jobbik leader. The Jewish Week (http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/international/new-life-new-mission-ex-jobbik-leader).

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252

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253

Обширное исследование причин нашего увлечения генеалогией см.: Zerubavel, E. (2012). Ancestors & relatives. Genealogy, identity, & community. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

254

Rodriguez, G. (30.05.2014). How genealogy became almost as popular as porn. Time Magazine.

255

Royal, C. D., Novembre, J., Fullerton, S. M., Goldstein, D. B., Long, J. C., Bamshad, M. J., & Clark, A. G. (2010). Inferring genetic ancestry: Opportunities, challenges, and implications. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 661–673.

256

Petrone, J. (13.01.2015). Consumer genomics market should pass «tipping point» of 3 million samples tested in 2015 (https://www.genomeweb.com/microarrays-multiplexing/consumer-genomics-market-should-pass-tipping-point-3-million-samples-tested).

257

Вычисление скорости генетических мутаций является ключевым для точной оценки дат миграции (Scally, A., & Durbin, R. (2012). Revising the human mutation rate: Implications for understanding human evolution. Nature Reviews Genetics, 13, 745–753).

258

См.: Mellars, P., Gori, K. C., Carr, M., Soares, P. A., & Richards, M. B. (2013). Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of Southern Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 10699–10704.

259

Подробный обзор миграций первых людей см.: Bellwood, P. (2014). First migrants: Ancient migration in global perspective. West Sussex, UK: Wiley.

260

Доказательствами такой структуры миграции людей служат также различия между языковыми семьями и распределение их в мире. См.: Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (2000). Genes, people, and languages. New York, NY: Farrar Straus & Giroux.

261

Ingman, M., Kaessmann, H., Paabo, S., & Gyllensten, U. (2000). Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans. Nature, 408, 708–713.

262

Underhill, P. A., Shen, P., Lin, A. A., Jin, L., Passarino, G., Yang, W. H., et al. (2000). Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations. Nature Genetics, 26, 358–361. Более поздние анализы показывают, что Y-хромосомному Адаму может быть 156 тыс. лет (Poznik, G. D., Henn, B. M., Yee, M. C., Sliwerska, E., Euskirchen. G. M., Lin, A. A., et al. (2013). Sequencing Y chromosomes resolves discrepancy in time to common ancestor of males versus females. Science, 341, 562–565).

263

Причина, по которой наш общий предок по отцовской линии находится ближе к нам, чем по материнской, заключается в большем разбросе в количестве детей среди мужчин. У некоторых представителей сильного пола рождаются сотни сыновей и дочерей, в то время как большинство женщин, как правило, имеют примерно одинаковое число детей. Следовательно, нам не нужно далеко ходить, чтобы найти общего предка по отцовской линии.

264

Bellis, C., Hughes, R. M., Begley, K. N., Quinlan, S., Lea, R. A., Heath, S. C., et al. (2005). Phenotypical characterisation of the isolated Norfolk Island population focusing on epidemiological indicators of cardiovascular disease. Human Heredity, 60, 211–219.

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Chiao, J. Y., & Blizinsky, K. D. (2010). Culture – gene coevolution of individualism – collectivism and the serotonin transporter gene. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 277, 529–537.

266

Novembre, J., Johnson, T., Bryc, K., Kutalik, Z., Boyko, A. R., Auton, A., et al. (2008). Genes mirror geography within Europe. Nature, 456, 98–101.

267

См. Elhaik, E., Tatarinova, T., Chebotarev, D., Piras, I. S., Maria Calò, C., De Montis, A., et al. (2014). Geographic population structure analysis of worldwide human populations infers their biogeographical origins. Nature Communications, 5, 3513. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4513.

268

Оценка фактической процентной доли каждого из наших предков несколько затруднена, поскольку мы наследуем ДНК от родителей частями посредством мейоза. Из-за этого некоторые наши далекие предки не оставили следов своей ДНК в нашем геноме (Royal, C. D., Novembre, J., Fullerton, S. M., Goldstein, D. B., Long, J. C., Bamshad, M. J., et al. (2010). Inferring genetic ancestry: Opportunities, challenges, and implications. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 661–673).

269

Проводится ежегодно в феврале в США и Канаде. Прим. ред.

270

Детальное исследование опыта генетического тестирования афроамериканцев см.: Nelson, A. (2008). Bio science: Genetic ancestry testing and the pursuit of African ancestry. Social Studies of Science, 38, 759–783.

271

Nelson, A. (2008). Genetic genealogy testing and the pursuit of African ancestry. Social Studies of Science, 38, 759–783.

273

Любопытно, что у нашей семьи была другая версия истории моей бабушки по материнской линии. Но через 23andMe со мной связался человек, которого компания определила в качестве моего четверо- или пятиюродного брата из-за наших общих генов. Он рассказал мне более правильную историю моей бабушки по матери.

274

Гаплогруппа – это группа людей, разделяющих гаплотип.

275

Данные об изменении населения Земли с течением времени см.: http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/basicdrivingfactors/population/index-2.html.

276

Больше информации о браках между родственниками см.: Bittles, A. H. (2001). Consanguinity and its relevance to clinical genetics. Clinical Genetics, 60, 89–98.

278

Ralph, P., & Coop, G. (2013). The geography of recent genetic ancestry across Europe. PLoS Biology, 11 (5), e1001555. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001555.

279

Rohde, D. L. T., Olson, S., & Chang, J. T. (2004). Modeling the recent common ancestry of all living humans. Nature, 431, 562–566.

280

Olson, S. (2002). Mapping human history. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.

281

Доводы о детях Иисуса см.: Baigent, M., Leigh, R., & Lincoln, H. (2004). Holy blood, holy grail. New York, NY: Dell.

282

См.: Olson, S. (15.03.2006). Why we’re all Jesus’s children. Slate (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2006/03/why_were_all_jesus_children.html).

283

Schutzenberger, A. A. (1998). The ancestor syndrome: Transgenerational psychotherapy and the hidden links in the family tree. London: Routledge.

284

Roth, W. D., & Lyon, K. (2016). Genetic ancestry tests and race: Who takes them, why, and how do they affect racial identities? In K. Suzuki & D. von Vacano (Eds.),Reconsidering Race: Cross-Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Approaches. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Yang, A. (2007). Is Oprah Zulu? Sampling and seeming certainty in DNA ancestry testing. Chance, 20, 32–39.

288

The American Society of Human Genetics (13.11.2008). Ancestry testing statement (http://www.ashg.org/pdf/ashgancestrytestingstatement_final.pdf); Bolnick, D. A., Fullwiley, D., Duster, T., Cooper, R. S., Fujimura, J. H., Kahn, J., et al. (2007). The science and business of genetic ancestry testing. Science, 318, 399–400; Lee, S. S., Bolnick, D. A., Duster, T., Ossorio, P., & Tallbear, K. (2009). The illusive gold standard in genetic ancestry testing. Science, 325, 38–39; Lindee, S. (2013). Map your own genes! In S. Krimsky & J. Gruber (Eds.),Genetic explanations: Sense and nonsense(p. 186–200). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Royal, C. D., Novembre, J., Fullerton, S. M., Goldstein, D. B., Long, J. C., Bamshad, M. J., & Clark, A. G. (2010). Inferring genetic ancestry: Opportunities, challenges, and implications. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 661–673; Richards, M. (14.02.2003). Beware the gene genies,Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/education/2003/feb/21/highereducation.uk).

289

См.: Koerner, B. I. (2005, Sep.). Blood feud. Wired Magazine (http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/13.09/seminoles.html).

290

См.: Harmon, A. (12.04.2006). Seeking ancestry in DNA ties uncovered by tests. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/12/us/12genes.html).

291

Travis, J. (29.09.2009). Scientists decry «flawed» and «horrifying» national tests. Science Insider (http://news.sciencemag.org/2009/09/scientists-decry-flawed-and-horrifying-nationality-tests); Hill, R., & Henderson, M. (17.06.2011). DNA test for bogus refugees scrapped as expensive flop. The Times (http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/article3064981.ece).

292

Gil-White, F. J. (2001). Are ethnic groups biological «species» to the human brain? Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515–554; Rothbart, M., & Taylor, M. (1992). Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds? In G. R. S. Semin & K. Fiedler (Eds.),Language, interaction and social cognition(p. 11–36). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

293

Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686–702.

294

Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice(p. 174). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

295

Оценки тенденций генетического эссенциализма см.: Dar-Nimrod, I., Ruby, M. B., Cheung, B. Y., Tam, K., & Murray, D. (2014, Feb.). The four horsemen of genetic essentialism: Theoretical underpinnings, methodological advancements, and empirical findings. Symposium presented at the 2014 Society for Personality and Social Psychology Annual Meeting, Austin, TX, USA.

296

Оценки ориентации на социальное доминирование см.: Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741–763.

297

Оценки масштабов современного расизма см.: McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.),Prejudice, discrimination, and racism(p. 91–125). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

298

Оценки авторитаризма консервативной направленности см.: Rattazzi, A. M. M., & Canova, A. B. L. (2007). A short version of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1223–1234.

299

В нескольких разных исследованиях выявили следующие корреляции: между тенденциями генетического эссенциализма (ТГЭ) и социальной доминацией: r = 0,24, r = 0,25 и r = 0,35; между ТГЭ и правым авторитаризмом: r = 0,21 и r = 0,30; между ТГЭ и современным расизмом: r = 0,27 и r = 0,24 (Cheung, B. Y., Ream, A., & Heine, S. J. (2015). Correlations of the Genetic Essentialist Tendencies Scale. Не опубликовано).

300

См.: Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686–702; Jayaratne, T. E., Ybarra, O., Sheldon, J. P., Brown, T. N., Feldbaum, M., Pfeffer, C. A., & Petty, E. M. (2006). White Americans’ genetic lay theories of race differences and sexual orientation: Their relationship with prejudice toward Blacks, gay men and lesbians. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9, 77–94; Jayaratne, T., Gelman, S., Feldbaum, M., Sheldon, J., Petty, E., & Kardia, S. (2009). The perennial debate: Nature, nurture, or choice? Black and White Americans’ explanations for individual differences. Review of General Psychology, 13, 24–33.

301

Latin lover – английское выражение, означает «страстный любовник, донжуан». Прим. перев.

304

См.: Sampanis, M. (2003). Preserving power through coalitions: Comparing the grand strategy of Great Britain and the United States. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.

305

Письмо с осуждением книги Уэйда см.: http://cehg.stanford.edu/letter-from-population-geneticists/.

306

Подробнее см.: Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural Psychology(3>rded.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton. См. также: Diamond, J. (1998). Guns, germs, and steel. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2013). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. New York, NY: Crown; Landes, D. S. (1999). The wealth and poverty of nations. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Ferguson, N. (2011). Civilization: The West and the rest. New York, NY: Penguin.

307

Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind (p. 429). New York, NY: Vintage Books.

308

См.: Needham, J. (1956). Science and civilisation in China, Vol. 2. History of scientific thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

309

Подробное описание разногласий и научных ошибок в медицине, основанной на расовых признаках, см.: Kahn, J. (2014). Race in a bottle: The story of Bidil and racialized medicine in a post-genomic age. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; Bliss, C. (2012). Race decoded: The genomic fight for social justice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; Jones, D. (2013). The prospects of personalized medicine. In S. Krimsky & J. Gruber (Eds.),Genetic explanations: Sense and Nonsense. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Center for Disease Control (2004). National Center for Health Statistics (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/tables/2003/03hus066.pdf).

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Cooper, R. S., Rotimi, C., Ataman, S., McGee, D., Osotimehin, B., Kadiri, S., et al. (1997). The prevalence of hypertension in seven populations of West African origin. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 160–168. Akinkugbe, O. O. (1987). World epidemiology of hypertension in Blacks. Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 3, 1s-8s.

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Wilson, T. W., & Grim, C. E. (1991). Biohistory of slavery and blood pressure differences in blacks today. A hypothesis. Hypertension, 17, I122–I129. Grim, C. E., & Robinson M. (1996). Blood pressure variation in blacks: Genetic factors. Seminars in Nephrology, 16, 83–93.

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Критику каждого аспекта гипотезы о рабстве см.: Curtin, P. D. (1992). The slavery hypothesis for hypertension among African Americans: The historical evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1681–1686. См. также: Cooper, R., & Rotimi, C. (1994). Hypertension in populations of West African origin: Is there a genetic predisposition?Journal of Hypertension, 12, 215–227; Dressler, W. W., Oths, K. S., & Gravlee, C. C. (2005). Race and ethnicity in public health research: Models to explain health disparities. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 231–252.

314

Kaufman, J. S., & Hall, S. A. (2003). The slavery hypertension hypothesis: Dissemination and appeal of a modern race theory. Epidemiology, 14, 111–118.

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См. также: Gravlee, C. C., Dressler, W. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2005). Skin color, social classification, and blood pressure in Southeastern Puerto Rico. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 2191–2197; Sweet, E., McDade, T. W., Kiefe, C. I., & Liu, K. (2007). Relationships between skin color, income, and blood pressure among African Americans in the CARDIA study. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 2253–2259; Non, A. L., Gravlee, C. C., & Mulligan, C. J. (2012). Education, genetic ancestry, and blood pressure in African Americans and Whites. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1559–1565.

316

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Feldman, M. W. (2003). The application of molecular genetic approaches to the study of human evolution. Nature Genetics, 33, 266–275; Caspari, R. (2010). Deconstructing race: Racial thinking, geographic variation, and implications for biological anthropology. In C. S. Larsen (Ed.),A companion to biological anthropology(p. 104–122). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell; Ramachandran, S., Deshpande, O., Roseman, C. C., Rosenberg, N. A., Feldman, M. W., & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (2005). Support from the relationship of genetic and geographic distance in human populations for a serial founder effect originating in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 15942–15947.

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Подробный анализ этого довода см.: Templeton, A. R. (2013). Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44, 262–271.

318

См.: Smith, H. M., Chiszar, D., & Montanucci, R. R. (1997). Subspecies and classification. Herpetological Review, 28, 13–16.

319

Weiss, K. M., & Long, J. C. (2009). Non-Darwinian estimation: My ancestors, my genes’ ancestors. Genome Research, 19, 703–710. Relethford, J. H. (2009). Race and global patterns of phenotypic variation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 16–22.

320

См. Smith, H. M., Chiszar, D., & Montanucci, R. R. (1997). Subspecies and classification. Herpetological Review, 28, 13–16.

321

См.: Templeton, A. R. (2013). Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44, 262–271. Подробнее об оценке 4,3 % см.: Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385. Используя гораздо меньше генетических маркеров, Ричард Левонтин ранее сделал известный вывод о том, что на расы приходится 6,3 % генетической изменчивости человека (Lewontin, R. (1972). The apportionment of human diversity. Evolutionary Biology, 6, 396–397).

322

Hunley, K. L., Healy, M. E., & Long, J. C. (2009). The global pattern of gene identity variation reveals a history of long-range migrations, bottlenecks, and local mate exchange: Implications for biological race. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 35–46; Templeton, A. R. (1998). Human races: A genetic and evolutionary perspective. American Anthropologist, 100, 632–650.

323

Обсуждение этой темы см.: Henrich, J. (2015). The secret of our success: How culture is driving human evolution, domesticating our species, and making us smarter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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Исследование 2002 г. (Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385) часто цитируется в поддержку идеи о том, что гены людей объединились в пять разных континентальных рас (африканскую, европейскую, азиатскую, австралийскую и индейскую). Обширная дискуссия по этому поводу приводится в книге Николаса Уэйда 2014 г. (A troublesome inheritance. New York, NY: Penguin Press). Но надо отметить два важных момента. Во-первых, использованный метод не охватывает кластеризацию генов, получившихся путем естественного отбора. Он в значительной степени основан на изучении генов, которые стали следствием генетического дрейфа. То есть результаты исследования говорят скорее о том, какие группы людей скрещивались друг с другом, а не о существовавших на тот или иной момент кластерах адаптивных признаков. Во-вторых, гораздо более сомнительным в интерпретации Уэйда является то, что это исследование не обосновывает существование именно пяти различных континентальных кластеров. Число кластеров для анализа определяется самим ученым. А в этом исследовании нашлись аргументы для любого количества кластеров от 4 до 20. Нет никаких доказательств того, что человеческие гены объединились в пять континентальных групп, которые соответствуют представлениям людей о расах (см.: Bolnick, D. A. (2008). Individual ancestry inference and the reification of race as a biological phenomenon. In Koenig, B. A., Lee, S. S., & Richardson, S. S. (Eds.),Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age(p. 70–101). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press; Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385).

325

Jorde, L. B., & Wooding, S. P. (2004). Genetic variation, classification and «race». Nature Genetics, 36, S28–S33; Gravlee, C. G. (2009). How race becomes biology: Embodiment of social inequality. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 47–57.

326

Coop, G., Pickrell, J. K., Novembre, J., Kudaravalli, S., Li, J., Absher, D., et al. (2009). The role of geography in human adaptation. PLoS Genetics, 5, e1000500.

327

Wade, N. (2014). A troublesome inheritance. New York, NY: Penguin Press.

328

См. также: Yudell, M., Roberts, D., DeSalle, R., & Tishkoff, S. (2016). Taking race out of human genetics. Science, 351, 564–565.

329

Templeton, A. R. (2013). Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44, 262–271. См. также: Santos, R. V., Fry, P. H., Monteiro, S., Maio, M. C., Rodrigues, J. C., Bastos-Rodrigues, L., et al. (2009). Color, race, and genomic ancestry in Brazil. Current Anthropology, 50, 787–819.

330

Англ. hypodescent – принцип «происхождения по низшей группе». Прим. перев.

331

Обратите внимание на то, что степень, в которой регламентируется гипонаследование, сильно варьируется в разных группах. Во многих племенах коренных американцев требуется значительная часть племенной крови, чтобы кто-то мог претендовать на членство (см.: Snipp, C. M. (2003). Racial measurement in the American census: Past practices and implications for the future. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 563–588).

332

Grant, M. (1916). The passing of the great race. New York, NY: Scribner.

333

Ho, A. K., Sidanius, J., Levin, D. T., & Banaji, M. R. (2011). Evidence for hypodescent and racial hierarchy in the categorization and perception of biracial individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 492–506.

334

Williams, M., & Eberhardt, J. (2008). Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1033–1047.

335

См. также: Phelan, J. C., Link, S. Z., & Yang, L. H. (2014). Direct-to-consumer racial admixture tests and beliefs about essential racial differences. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77, 296–318; and Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., & Feldman, N. M. (2013). The genomic revolution and beliefs about essential racial differences: A backdoor to eugenics?American Sociological Review, 78, 167–191.

336

No, S., Hong, Y., Liao, H., Lee, K., Wood, D., & Chao, M. (2008). Lay theory of race affects and moderates Asian Americans’ responses toward American culture. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 991–1004. Концептуально схожие выводы см.: Chao, M., Chen, J., Roisman, G., & Hong, Y. (2007). Essentializing race: Implications for bicultural individuals’ cognition and physiological reactivity. Psychological Science, 18, 341–348.

337

Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 623–651.

338

Fu, Q., Mittnik, A., Johnson, P. L., Bos, K., Lari, M., Bollongino, R., et al. (2013). A revised timescale for human evolution based on ancient mitochondrial genomes. Current Biology, 23, 553–559.

339

Gonder, M. K., Locatelli, S., Ghobrial, L., Mitchell, M. W., Kujawski, J. T., Lankester, F. J., et al. (2011). Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 108, 4766–4771.

340

Becquet, C., Patterson, N., Stone, A. C., Przeworski, M., & Reich, D. (2007). Genetic structure of chimpanzee populations. PLoS Genetics, 3, e66. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.0030066.

342

Цит. по: Collins, F. S. (2010). The language of life(p. 147). New York, NY: Harper.

343

Kimel, S. Y., Huesmann, R., Kunst, J. R., & Halperin, E. (2016). Living in a genetic world: How learning about interethnic genetic similarities and differences affects peace and conflict. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42, 688–700.

344

Schmalor, A., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2015). Exploring people’s thoughts about the causes of ethnic stereotypes. Unpublished data. University of British Columbia.

345

Еще один пример преимущества второй истории см.: Kang, S. K., Plaks, J. E., & Remedios, J. D. (2015). Folk beliefs about genetic variation predict avoidance of biracial individuals. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 357. См. также: Plaks, J. E., Malahy, L. W., Sedlins, M., & Shoda, Y. (2012). Folk beliefs about human genetic variations predict discrete versus continuous racial categorization and evaluative bias. Social Psychological and PersonalityScience, 3, 31–39.

346

Burt, C. (1934). Studying the minds of others. In C. Burt (Ed.),How the mind works(p. 28). London, England: Unwin Brothers.

347

Deary, I. J., Lawn, M., & Bartholomew, D. J. (2008). A conversation between Charles Spearman, Godfrey Thomson, and Edward L. Thorndike: The International Examinations Inquiry Meetings 1931–1938 (Vol. 11, p. 122). History of Psychology, 11, 163.

348

Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D. R., Takata, T., Ide, E., Leung, C., & Matsumoto, H. (2001). Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 599–615.

349

Правильный ответ – «квадрат» (square): справедливая сделка (Square Deal), сытная трапеза (Square Meal), квадратный колышек/прищепка (Square Peg – идиома, обозначает человека, находящегося не на своем месте).

350

Очень подробное и интересное исследование этой работы см.: Dweck, C. (2007). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballantine.

351

Asbury, K., & Plomin, R. (2014). G is for genes. West Sussex, UK: Wiley.

352

Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it(p. 45–46). New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

353

Chabris, C. F., Hebert, B. M., Benjamin, D. J., Beauchamp, J. P., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., et al. (2012). Most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives. Psychological Science, 23, 1314–1323.

354

Kirkpatrick, R. M., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., Miller, M. B., & Basu, S. (2014). Results of a «GWAS Plus»: General cognitive ability is substantially heritable and massively polygenic. PLoS One, 9, e112390; Butcher, L. M., Davis, O. S. P., Craig, I. W., & Plomin, R. (2008). Genome-wide quantitative trait locus association scan of general cognitive ability using pooled DNA and 500K single nucleotide polymorphism microarrays. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 7, 435–446; Franic, S., Dolan, C. V., Broxholme, J., Hu, H., Zemojtel, J., Davies, G. E., et al. (2015). Mendelian and polygenic inheritance of intelligence: A common set of causal genes. Using next-generation sequencing to examine the effects of 168 intellectual disability genes on normal-range intelligence. Intelligence, 49, 10–22.

355

Rietveld, C. A., Esko, T., Davies, G., Pers, T. H., Turley, P., Benyamin, B., et al. (2014). Common genetic variants associated with cognitive performance identified using the proxy-phenotype method. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 13790–13794.

356

Davies, G., Tenesa, A., Payton, A., Yang, J., Harris, S. E., Liewald, D., et al. (2011). Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 996–1005; Chabris, C. F., Hebert, B. M., Benjamin, D. J., Beauchamp, J. P., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., et al. (2012). Most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives. Psychological Science, 23, 1314–1323.

357

Johnson, W. (2010). Understanding the genetics of intelligence: Can height help? Can corn oil?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 177–182; Benyamin, B., Pourcain, B., Davis, O. S., Davies, G., Hansell, N. K., Brion, M. J., et al. (2014). Childhood intelligence is heritable, highly polygenic and associated with FNBP1L. Molecular Psychiatry, 19, 253–258.

358

Полногеномный анализ образовательного уровня позволил исследователям предсказать приблизительно 2,5 балла IQ для каждого допустимого отклонения полигенных баллов человека, рассчитанных по чипу ОНП (см. Belsky, D. W., Moffitt, T. E., Corcoran, D. L., Domingue, B., Harrington, H., Hogan, S., et al. (2016). The genetics of success: How single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with educational attainment relate to life-course development. Psychological Science).

359

Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (1998). Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities. Human Biology, 70, 257–279; Deary, I. J., Johnson, W., & Houlihan, L. (2009). Genetic foundations of human intelligence. Human Genetics, 126, 215–232.

360

Веский аргумент в пользу этого см.: Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.

361

Scarr-Salapatek, S. (1971). Race, social class, and IQ. Science, 174, 1285–1295; Rowe, D. C., Jacobson, K. C., & Van den Oord, E. J. C. G. (1999). Genetic and environmental influences on vocabulary IQ: Parental education level as moderator. Child Development, 70, 1151–1162; Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D’Onofrio, B., & Gottesman, I. (2003). Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young children. Psychological Science, 14, 623–628. Любопытно, что влияние социального статуса на наследуемость интеллекта более выражено в Соединенных Штатах, чем где-либо еще (см.: Tucker-Drop, E. M., & Bates, T. C. (2015). Large cross-national differences in gene × socioeconomic status interaction on intelligence. Psychological Science). Это может быть результатом большего неравенства доходов. В местах с более высоким уровнем социального обеспечения, например в Европе, нет таких серьезных различий в оценках наследуемости IQ между богатыми и бедными.

362

Обсуждение этого вопроса см.: Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; and Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 392–409.

363

Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

364

Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 392–409.

365

Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The Total Design Method. New York, NY: Wiley. Обсуждение см.: Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.

366

Подробный обзор литературы по теме см.: Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83.

367

Обсуждение этого вопроса см.: Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. P. 37–38.

368

Greulich, W. W. (1957). A comparison of the physical growth and development of American-born and native Japanese children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15, 489–515.

369

Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159; Duyme, M., Dumaret, A., & Tomkiewicz, S. (1999). How can we boost IQs of «dull» children? A late adoption study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 96, 8790–8794; Moore, E. C. J. (1986). Family socialization and the IQ test performance of traditionally and transracially adopted Black children. Developmental Psychology, 22, 317–326; Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Juffer, F., & Poelhuis, C. W. K. (2005). Adoption and cognitive development: A meta-analytic comparison of adopted and nonadopted children’s IQ and school performance. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 301–316.

370

Brockman, J. (Ed). (2006). What is your dangerous idea?New York, NY: Harper.

371

Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York, NY: Free Press.

372

Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1988). The IQ controversy: The media and public policy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

373

Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385.

374

Dickens, W. T., & Flynn, J. R. (2006). Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples. Psychological Science, 17, 913–920.

375

Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.

376

Ogbu, J. U. (1994). Minority education and caste. The American system in cross-cultural perspective. New York, NY: Academic Press.

377

Можно найти и другие подтверждения различий в образовательных возможностях между людьми разных рас и их влияния на интеллект. У черных детей, усыновленных белыми семьями, показатели IQ были примерно на 13 пунктов выше, чем у черных детей, воспитываемых в приемных семьях афроамериканцев. Следует отметить, что те усыновленные, у которых оба биологических родителя были темнокожими, не отличались по набранным баллам теста на интеллект от тех приемных детей, у которых один из родителей был черным, а второй – белым. Это дополнительный аргумент в пользу отказа от расовых теорий различия IQ (см.: Moore, E. G. J. (1986). Family socialization and the IQ test performance of traditionally and transracially adopted Black children. Developmental Psychology, 22, 317–326).

378

Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159; Duyme, M., Dumaret, A., & Tomkiewicz, S. (1999). How can we boost IQs of «dull» children? A late adoption study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 96, 8790–8794; Moore, E. C. J. (1986). Family socialization and the IQ test performance of traditionally and transracially adopted Black children. Developmental Psychology, 22, 317–326; Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Juffer, F., & Poelhuis, C. W. K. (2005). Adoption and cognitive development: A meta-analytic comparison of adopted and nonadopted children’s IQ and school performance. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 301–316.

379

См.: Flynn, J. R. (2007). What is intelligence?Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

380

Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2015). One century of global IQ gains: A formal meta-analysis of the Flynn Effect (1909–2013). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 282–306.

381

Trahan, L., Stuebing, K. K., Hiscock, M. K., & Fletcher, J. M. (2014). The Flynn Effect: A Meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1332–1360. Впрочем, некоторые исследователи полагают, что кривая роста интеллекта выравнивается немного раньше (Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2015). One century of global IQ gains: A formal meta-analysis of the Flynn Effect (1909–2013). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 282–306).

382

См.: Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.

383

Healy, J. M. (1990). Endangered minds: Why children dont think and what we can do about it. New York: Simon & Schuster.

384

Goldin, C. (1998). America’s graduation from high school: The evolution and spread of secondary schooling in the twentieth century. Journal of Economic History, 58, 345–374; US Census Bureau (2014). Некоторые статистические данные по США см.: 2012 American community survey 1-year estimates (factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_12_1YR_DP02&prodType=table).

385

Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you. New York, NY: Riverhead Books.

386

Из альфа-теста времен Первой мировой войны, который использовался для оценки интеллекта грамотных новобранцев. См.: Rafter, N. (2008). The criminal mind. New York, NY: New York University Press. P. 136. См. также: Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books. P. 66.

387

Raven, J. C. (1965). Guide to using the coloured progressive matrices. London: H. K. Lewis.

388

Davis, H. E. (2014). Variable education exposure and cognitive task performance among the Tsimane forager horticulturalists. Doctoral dissertation. The University of New Mexico.

389

Gordon, P. (2005). Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia. Science, 306, 496–499. См. также: Everett, D. L. (2005). Cultural constraints on grammar and cognition in Pirahã. Current Anthropology, 46, 621–634.

390

Эти данные еще не опубликованы. Они являются частью исследований, проведенных Дунканом Стиббардом-Хоксом и Кореном Апичелла. Личное сообщение Корена Апичелла от 9 июня 2015 г.

391

Raichlen, D. A., Wood, B. M., Gordon, A. D., Mabulla, A. Z. P., Marlowe, F. W., & Pontzer, H. (2014). Evidence of Levy walk foraging patterns in human hunter-gatherers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 728–733.

392

См.: Anderson, M. (1971). Bad seed. In S. Richards (Ed.),Best mystery and suspense plays of the modern theatre(p. 597–667). New York, NY: Dodd, Mead. P. 640.

393

Maudsley, H. (1874). Responsibility in mental disease(p. 25, 33). London: Henry S. King.

394

Rafter, N. (2008). The criminal brain(p. 65). New York, NY: New York University Press.

395

См.: Lombroso, C. (2006). Criminal man (M. Gibson & N. H. Rafter, Trans.). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. P. 51.

396

Horn, D. (2003). The criminal body: Lombroso and the anatomy of deviance. New York, NY: Routledge.

397

Тем не менее отношение ширины к высоте лица может помочь предсказать, какие хоккеисты будут вести себя наиболее агрессивно (Carre, J. M., & McCormick, C. M. (2008). In your face: facial metrics predict aggressive behavior in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275, 2651–2656).

398

Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M. R., van Zandvoort, P., Abeling, N. G., van Gennip, A. H., Wolters, E. C., et al. (1993). X-linked borderline mental retardation with prominent behavioral disturbance: Phenotype, genetic localization, and evidence for disturbed monoamine metabolism. American Journal of Human Genetics, 52, 1032–1039; Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X. O., Ropers, H. H., & van Oost, B. A. (1993). Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science, 262, 578–580.

399

Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854. Недавний метаанализ, подтверждающий надежность этого вывода, см.: Byrd, A. L., & Manuck, S. B. (2014). MAOA, childhood maltreatment and antisocial behavior: Meta-analysis of a gene-environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 75, 9–17.

400

Lea, R., & Chambers, G. (2007). Monoamine oxidase, addiction, and the «warrior» gene hypothesis. New Zealand Medical Journal, 120 (1250), 5–10; Beaver, K. M., Davis, C., Leavitt, K., Schriger, I., Benson, K., Bhakta, S., et al. (2012). Exploring the association between the 2-repeat allele of the MAOA gene promoter polymorphism and psychopathic personality traits, arrests, incarceration, and lifetime antisocial behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 164–168.

401

Wade, N. (2014). A troublesome inheritance. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Stokes, J. (05.03.2007). Scientist defends «warrior» gene. The New Zealand Herald.

402

Widon, C. S., & Brzustowicz, L. M. (2006). MAOA and the «cycle of violence»: Childhood abuse and neglect, MAOA genotype, and risk for violent and antisocial behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 684–689.

403

Список многочисленных ассоциаций генаМАОАсм.: Charney, E., & English, W. (2012). Candidate genes and political behavior. American Political Science Review, 106, 1–34.

404

Global Study on Homicide 2013: Trends, contexts, data (http://www.unodc.org/documents/gsh/pdfs/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf).

405

Преступный умысел (лат.). Прим. перев.

406

Way, B. M., & Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Is there a genetic contribution to cultural differences? Collectivism, individualism and genetic markers of social sensitivity. Social andCognitive Affective Neuroscience, 5, 203–211; Lea, R., & Chambers, G. (2007). Monoamine oxidase, addiction, and the «warrior» gene hypothesis. New Zealand Medical Journal, 120 (1250), 5–10.

408

Aspinwall, L. G., Brown, T. R., & Tabery, J. (2012). The double-edged sword: Does biomechanism increase or decrease judges’ sentencing of psychopaths?Science, 337 (6096), 846–849.

409

Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2015). The double-edged sword of genetic accounts of criminality: Causal attributions from genetic ascriptions affect legal decision-making. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

410

Другой пример этого эффекта см.: Monterosso, J., Royzman, E. B., & Schwartz, B. (2005). Explaining away responsibility: Effects of scientific explanation on perceived culpability. Ethics & Behavior, 15, 139–158.

411

Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1988). Homicide. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.

412

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413

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414

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415

Kevles, D. J. (1995). In the name of eugenics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books; Kevles, D. J. (1992). Out of eugenics: The historical politics of the human genome. In D. J. Kevles & L. Hood (Eds.)The code of codes(p. 3–36). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

416

Lombardo, P. A. (2008). Three generations, no imbeciles(p. 117). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

417

Leuchtenburg, W. E. (1995). The Supreme Court reborn. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

418

Stern, A. M. (2005). Eugenic nation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

419

Broberg, G., & Roll-Hansen, N. (1996). Eugenics and the welfare state: Sterilization policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Robertson, J. (2001). Japan’s first cyborg? Miss Nippon, eugenics and wartime technologies of beauty, body, and blood. Body and Society, 7, 1–34. Stepan, N. L. (1991). The hour of eugenics: Race, gender, and nation in Latin America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

420

Kevles, D. J. (1995). In the name of eugenics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

421

Allen, G. (1975). Genetics, eugenics and class struggle. Genetics, 79 (supplement), 29–45; Hahn, N. (1980). Too dumb to know better: Cacogenic family studies and the criminology of women. Criminology, 18, 3 25; Rafter, N. (2008). The criminal brain. New York, NY: New York University Press; Stern, A. M. (2005). Eugenic nation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

422

Selden, S. (2005). Transforming better babies into fitter families: Archival resources and the history of the American Eugenics Movement, 1908–1930. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 149, 199–225.

423

Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books.

424

Singleton, M. M. (2014). The «science» of eugenics: America’s moral detour. Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons, 19 (4), 122–125.

425

Dorr, G., & Logan, A. (2011). Quality, not mere quantity counts: Black eugenics and the NAACP baby contests. In P. Lombardo (Ed.). A century of eugenics in America(p. 68–92). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

426

Shevell, M. (2012). A Canadian paradox: Tommy Douglas and eugenics. CanadianJournal of Neurological Sciences, 39, 35–39.

427

Spektorowki, A., & Ireni-Saban, L. (2013). Politics of eugenics: Productionism, population, and national welfare.New York, NY: Routledge. Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books.

428

Comfort, N. (2012). The science of human perfection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

429

Wertz, D. (1998). Eugenics is alive and well: A survey of genetics professionals around the world. Science in Context, 11, 493–510.

430

Stern, A. M. (2005). Eugenic nation: Faults and frontiers of better breeding in modern America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. См. также: Cockburn, A. (02.10.1997). A big green bomb aimed at immigration. Los Angeles Times (http://articles.latimes.com/1997/oct/02/local/me-38318).

431

Stern, A. M. (2005). Eugenic nation: Faults and frontiers of better breeding in modern America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books. Kevles, D. J. (1995). In the name of eugenics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

432

Ludmerer, K. M. (1972). Genetics and American society: A historical appraisal(p. 34). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

433

Comfort, N. (2012). The science of human perfection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

434

Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books.

435

Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books.

436

Black, E. (2003). War against the weak: Eugenics and America’s campaign to create a master race. New York, NY: Four Walls Eight Windows.

437

Black, E. (2003). War against the weak: Eugenics and America’s campaign to create a master race. New York, NY: Four Walls Eight Windows; Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. New York, NY: Humanity Books; Kevles, D. J. (1995). In the name of eugenics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

438

Wolstenholme, G. (1963). Man and his future(p. 275). Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

439

Bhattacharya, S. (28.02.2003). Stupidity should be cured, says DNA discoverer. Daily News (https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3451-stupidity-should-be-cured-says-dna-discoverer/).

440

Инстинкт странствий, кочевничества. Прим. перев.

441

Comfort, N. (2012). The science of human perfection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

442

Kevles, D. J. (1995). In the name of eugenics(p. 53). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

443

Некоторые сторонники евгеники, такие как Генри Годдард, предположили, что слабоумие является рецессивным признаком. Проблема этих рассуждений состоит в том, что они дают аргументы против евгеники, как подметили некоторые критики того времени. Ведь, изъяв людей со слабоумием из генетического фонда, мы избавимся лишь от небольшой доли носителей признака (им необходимо быть гомозиготными, чтобы обладать фенотипом) и почти не повлияем на преобладание признака (подробнее см.: Paul D. B. Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. NY: Humanity Books, 1965. P. 68).

444

Goddard, H. H. (1920). Feeble-mindedness: Its causes and consequences(p. 437). New York, NY: MacMillan.

445

Walter, H. E. (1913). Genetics: An introduction to the study of heredity(p. 255). New York, NY: MacMillan.

446

Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686–702.

447

Корреляции в разных исследованиях и в разных системах измерения варьировались между r = 0,3 и r = –0,5 (см.: Heine, S. J., Cheung, B. Y., & Ream, C. (28.02.2015). Genetic attributions underlie people’s attitudes towards criminal responsibility and eugenics. Symposium presentation at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Long Beach, CA).

448

Duster, T. (2003). Backdoor to eugenics. New York, NY: Routledge.

449

Chang, E. (05.08.2009). In China, DNA tests on kids ID genetic gifts, careers. CNN (http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/08/03/china.dna.children.ability/).

450

Webborn, N., Williams, A., McNamee, M., Bouchard, C., Pitsiladis, Y., Ahmetov, I., et al. (2015). Direct-to-consumer genetic testing for predicting sports performance and talent identification: Consensus statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49, 1486–1491.

451

Macur, J. (29.11.2008). Born to run? Little ones get test for sports gene. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/sports/30genetics.html?_r=4&).

452

Например, American International Biotechnology Services, тестировавшие людей на наличие спортивных генов, получили такое письмо (http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/InVitroDiagnostics/ucm255348.htm).

453

Yang, N., MacArthur, D. G., Gulbin, J. P., Hahn, A. G., Beggs, A. H., Easteal, S., et al. (2003). ACTN3 genotype is associated with human elite athletic performance. American Journal of Human Genetics, 73, 627–631.

454

Комментарии одного из исследователей, изучавшего связь между геном ACTN3 и спортивными достижениями, см.: MacArthur, D. (30.11.2008). The ACTN3 sports gene test: What can it really tell you?Wired Magazine (http://www.wired.com/2008/11/the-actn3-sports-gene-test-what-can-it-really-tell-you/).

455

См.: Webborn, N., Williams, A., McNamee, M., Bouchard, C., Pitsiladis, Y., Ahmetov, I., et al. (2015). Direct-to-consumer genetic testing for predicting sports performance and talent identification: Consensus statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49, 1486–1491.

456

Schell, J., & Van Montagu, M. (1977). The Ti-plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a natural vector for the introduction of NIF genes in plants?Basic Life Sciences, 9, 159–179.

457

Sanford, J. C., Klein, T. M., Wolf, E. D., & Allen, N. (1987). Delivery of substances into cells and tissues using a particle bombardment process. Particulate Science and Technology, 5, 27–37.

458

Gonsalves, D. (2004). Transgenic papaya in Hawaii and beyond. AgBioForum, 7 (1&2), 36–40.

459

Ronald, P. C., & McWilliams, J. E. (14.05.2010). Genetically engineered distortions. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/15/opinion/15ronald.html).

460

Hightower, R., Baden, C., Penzes, E., Lund, P., & Dunsmuir, P. (1991). Expression of antifreeze proteins in transgenic plants. Plant Molecular Biology, 17, 1013–1021.

461

Fedoroff, N. (2004). Mendel in the kitchen. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

462

Cyranoski, D. (29.09.2015). Gene-edited «micropigs» to be sold as pets at Chinese institute. Nature News (http://www.nature.com/news/gene-edited-micropigs-to-be-sold-as-pets-at-chinese-institute-1.18448).

463

Ye, X., Al-Babili, S., Klöti, A., Zhang, J., Lucca, P., Beyer, P., et al. (2000). Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science, 287, 303–305.

464

Harmon, A. (24 августа 2013 г.). Golden rice: Lifesaver?New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/sunday-review/golden-rice-lifesaver.html?hp&_r=0).

465

Lemaux, P. G. (2008). Genetically engineered plants and foods: A scientist’s analysis of the issues (Part I). Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59, 771–812.

466

Hallman, W., Hebden, C., Aquino, H., Cuite, C., & Lang, J. (2003). Public perceptions of genetically modified foods: A national study of American knowledge and opinion. Publication number RR-1003–004. New Brunswick, NJ: Food Policy Institute, Cook College, Rutgers.

467

Harmon, A. (04.01.2014). A lonely quest for facts on genetically modified crops. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/05/us/on-hawaii-a-lonely-quest-for-facts-about-gmos.html?hp&_r=1).

468

Frewer, L. J., van der Lans, I. A., Fischer, A. R., Reinders, M. J., Menozzi, D., Zhang, X., et al. (2013). Public perceptions of agri-food applications of genetic modification – A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 30, 142–152.

469

Moon, W., & Balasubramanian, S. K. (2001). Public perceptions and willingness-to-pay a premium for non-GM foods in the US and UK. AgBioForum, 4 (3&4), 221–231.

470

Корреляции между одобрением ГМО и образованием в сфере генетики или общими знаниями о ней варьируются между 0,12 и 0,31 (Ream, C., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2015). Correlations with GMO attitudes. Unpublished data. University of British Columbia).

471

Hallman, W., Hebden, C., Aquino, H., Cuite, C., & Lang, J. (2003). Public perceptions of genetically modified foods: A national study of American knowledge and opinion. Publication number RR-1003–004. New Brunswick, NJ: Food Policy Institute, Cook College, Rutgers.

472

Gaskell, G., Allum, N. C., & Stares, S. R. (2003). Europeans and biotechnology in 2002: Eurobarometer 58.0. Brussels: European Commission.

473

Hallman, W. K., Cuite, C. L., & Morin, X. K. (2013). Public perceptions of labeling genetically modified foods(Working paper 2013–01) (http://humeco.rutgers.edu/documents_pdf/news/gmlabelingperceptions.pdf).

474

Pew Research Center (29.01.2015). Chapter 3: Attitudes and beliefs on science and technology topics (http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/chapter-3-attitudes-and-beliefs-on-science-and-technology-topics/).

475

American Association for the Advancement of Science (20.10.2012). Labeling of genetically modified foods (http://archives.aaas.org/docs/resolutions.php?doc_id=464).

476

О ранней искусственной селекции пшеницы см.: Anderson, P. C. (1999). Prehistory of agriculture: New experimental and ethnographic approaches, Los Angeles: University of California Press; Fedoroff, N. (2004). Mendel in the kitchen. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.

477

Ahloowalia, B. S., Maluszynski, M., & Nichterlein, K. (2004). Global impact of mutation-derived varieties. Euphytica, 135, 187–204.

478

См.: Miller, H. I., & Conko, G. (2004). The Frankenfood myth. Westport, CT: Praeger.

479

Guyton, K. Z., Loomis, D., Grosse, Y., El Ghissassi, F., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., Guha, N., et al. (2015). Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate. The Lancet Oncology, 16, 490–491.

480

Scott, S. E., Inbar, Y., & Rozin, P. (2016). Evidence for absolute moral opposition to genetically modified food in the United States. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 11 (3), 315–324.

481

Baron, J., & Spranca, M. (1997). Protected values. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 70, 1–16; Tetlock, P. E. (2003). Thinking the unthinkable: Sacred values and taboo cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 320–324.

482

Haidt, J., & Hersh, M. A. (2001). Sexual morality: The cultures and emotions of conservatives and liberals. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 191–221. Haidt, J., Bjorklund, F., & Murphy, S. (1999). Moral dumbfounding: When intuition finds no reason. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.

483

Harmon, A. (24.08.2013). Golden rice: Lifesaver?New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/25/sunday-review/golden-rice-lifesaver.html?hp&_r=0).

484

Scott, S. E., Inbar, Y., & Rozin, P. (2016). Evidence for absolute moral opposition to genetically modified food in the United States. Perspectives in Psychological Science. 11 (3), 315–324.

485

Rozin, P., Spranca, M., Krieger, Z., Neuhaus, R., Surillo, D., Swerdlin, A., & Wood, K. (2005). Preference for natural: Instrumental and ideational/moral motivations, and the contrast between foods and medicines. Appetite, 43, 147–154.

486

Tenbült, P., de Vries, N. K., Dreezens, E., & Martijn, C. (2005). Perceived naturalness and acceptance of genetically modified food. Appetite, 45, 47–50.

487

См. Condit, C. M. (2010). Public attitudes and beliefs about genetics. Annual Review Genomics and Human Genetics, 11, 339–359.

488

Specter, M. (25.08.2014). Seeds of doubt. The New Yorker (http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/08/25/seeds-of-doubt).

489

Pew Research Center (29.01.2015). Chapter 3: Attitudes and beliefs on science and technology topics (http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/chapter-3-attitudes-and-beliefs-on-science-and-technology-topics/).

490

Harris Poll (2014). Doctors, military officers, firefighters, and scientists seen as among America’s most prestigious occupations (http://www.theharrispoll.com/politics/Doctors_Military_Officers_Firefighters_and_Scientists_Seen_as_Among_America_s_Most_Prestigious_Occupations.html).

491

Gaskell, G., Stares, S., Allansdottir, A., Allum, N., Castro, P., Esmer, Y., et al. (2010). Europeans and biotechnology in 2010: Winds of change?(Eurobarometer Survey Series No. 7; Report EUR24537). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union (http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_winds_en.pdf).

492

Hallman, W., Hebden, C., Cuite, C., Aquino, H., & Lang, J. (2004). Americans and GM food: Knowledge, opinion and interest in 2004. Publication number RR-1104–007. New Brunswick, NJ: Food Policy Institute, Cook College, Rutgers.

493

Критический анализ аргументов критиков ГМО см.: Lemaux, P. G. (2008). Genetically engineered plants and foods: A scientist’s analysis of the issues (Part I). Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59, 771–812. См. также: Saletan, W. (15.07.2015). Unhealthy fixation. The war against genetically modified organisms is full of fearmongering, errors, and fraud. Labeling them will not make you safer. Slate (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2015/07/are_gmos_safe_yes_the_case_against_them_is_full_of_fraud_lies_and_errors.html).

494

Примеры нескольких подобных несуществующих исследований, якобы свидетельствующих об опасности ГМО, см.: Smith, J. M. (2007). Genetic roulette: The documented health risks of genetically engineered foods. Fairfield, IA: Yes! Books.

495

Séralini, G.-E., Clair, E., Mesnage, R., Gress, S., Defarge, N., Malatesta, M., et al. (2012). Long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50, 4221–4231.

496

Hayes, A. W. (2014). Retraction notice to «Long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize». Food and Chemical Toxicology, 63, 244.

497

Wilson, R. D., Langlois, S., & Johnson, J. (2007). Mid-trimester amniocentesis fetal loss rate. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, 194, 586–590.

498

Sayres, L. C., & Cho, M. K. (2011). Cell-free fetal nucleic acid testing: A review of the technology and its applications. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 66, 431–442. Norton, M. E., & Wapner, R. J. (2015). Cell-free DNA analysis for noninvasive examination of trisomy. The New England Journal of Medicine, 372, 1589–1597.

499

Mansfield, C., Hopfer, S., & Marteau, T. M. (1999). Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spinal bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: A systematic literature review. Prenatal Diagnosis, 19, 808–812.

500

Natoli, J. L., Ackerman, D. L., McDermott, S., & Edwards, J. G. (2012). Prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome: A systematic review of termination rates (1995–2011). Prenatal Diagnosis, 32, 142–153.

502

Интересно, что 23andMe обнаружила у меня рецессивные гены, с которыми связаны фенилкетонурия и дефицит альфа-1 антитрипсина. В то время как секвенирование экзома, проведенное компанией Gentle, определило меня как носителя генов дефицита альфа-1 антитрипсина и синдрома Меккеля – Грубера. Маркер для последнего синдрома не исследовался ДНК-чипом 23andMe. Тем не менее обе компании обнаружили у меня один и тот же ОНП, rs5030860, который 23andMe связала с фенилкетонурией. Но Gentle проинформировала меня, что симптомы, обусловленные этим ОПН, не подходят под описание классической фенилкетонурии. Следовательно, даже такие, казалось бы, очевидные случаи, как выявление рецессивных болезней, вызывают разногласия.

504

Об интересных дискуссиях по поводу Дор Йешарим см.: Gessen, M. (2008). Blood matters. New York, NY: Mariner Books.

505

Appel, J. M. (04.03.2009). Mandatory genetic testing isn’t eugenics, it’s smart science. Opposing Views (http://www.opposingviews.com/i/mandatory-genetic-testing-isn-t-eugenics-it-s-smart-science).

506

Savulescu, J. (2001). Procreative beneficence: Why we should select the best children. Bioethics, 15, 413–426 (p. 415).

507

Hudson, K., & Scott, J. (2002). Public awareness and attitudes about genetic technology. Washington, DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center.

508

Wasserman, D., & Asch, A. (2006). The uncertain rationale for prenatal disability screening. AMA Journal of Ethics, 8, 1, 53–56.

509

Цит. по: Abraham, C. (07.01.2012). Unnatural selection: Is evolving reproductive technology ushering in a new age of eugenics?The Globe and Mail (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/parenting/unnatural-selection-is-evolving-reproductive-technology-ushering-in-a-new-age-of-eugenics/article1357885/?page=all).

510

Winkelman, W. D., Missmer, S. A., Myers, D., & Ginsburg, E. S. (2015). Public perspectives on the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Journal of Assisted Reproductive Genetics, 32, 665–675.

511

Hudson, K., & Scott, J. (2002). Public awareness and attitudes about genetic technology. Washington, DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center.

512

Захватывающую историю Молли Нэш см.: Faison, A. M. (2005, Aug.). The miracle of Molly. 5280: The Denver Magazine (http://www.5280.com/2005/08/the-miracle-of-molly/).

513

Rivard, L. (11.06.2013). Case study in savior siblings. Scitable by Nature Education (http://www.nature.com/scitable/forums/genetics-generation/case-study-in-savior-siblings-104229158).

514

Spriggs, M. (2002). Lesbian couple create a child who is deaf like them. Journal of Medical Ethics, 28, 283.

515

Baruch, S. (2008). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis and parental preferences: Beyond deadly disease. Houston Journal of Health Law & Policy, 8, 245–270.

516

Baruch, S., Kaufman, D., & Hudson, K. L. (2008). Genetic testing of embryos: Practices and perspectives of US in vitro fertilization clinics. Fertility & Sterility, 89, 1053–1058.

517

Winkelman, W. D., Missmer, S. A., Myers, D., & Ginsburg, E. S. (2015). Public perspectives on the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Journal of Assisted Reproductive Genetics, 32, 665–675.

518

Savulescu, J. (2001). Procreative beneficence: Why we should select the best children. Bioethics, 15, 413–426.

519

Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.

520

Berscheid, E., & Dion, K. (1971). Physical attractiveness and dating choice: A test of the matching hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 173–189. Kalick, S. M., & Hamilton, T. E. III (1986). The matching hypothesis reexamined. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 673–682.

521

Spar, D. L. (2006). The baby business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

523

Цит. по: Plotz, D. (2006). The genius factory: The curious history of the Nobel prize sperm bank. New York, NY: Random House. P. 7.

524

Plotz, D. (2006). The genius factory: The curious history of the Nobel prize sperm bank. New York, NY: Random House.

525

Scheib, J. E. (1994). Sperm donor selection and the psychology of female mate choice. Ethology & Sociobiology (now Evolution and Human Behavior), 15, 113–129. Scheib, J. E., Kristiansen, A., & Wara, A. (1997). A Norwegian note on sperm donor selection and the psychology of female mate choice. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 143–149.

526

The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (2007). Financial compensation of oocyte donors. Fertility and Sterility, 88 (2), 305–309 (https://www.asrm.org/uploadedFiles/ASRM_Content/News_and_Publications/Ethics_Committee_Reports_and_Statements/financial_incentives.pdf).

527

Spar, D. L. (2006). The baby business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

528

Levine, A. D. (2010, March – April). Self-regulation, compensation, and the ethical recruitment of oocyte donors. The Hastings Center Report, 40 (2), 25–36.

529

Levine, A. D. (2010, March – April). Self-regulation, compensation, and the ethical recruitment of oocyte donors. The Hastings Center Report, 40 (2), 25–36.

530

Некоторые примеры, связанные с этой истерией, см.: Nichol, D. (28.02.1997). Hello Dolly, the Scottish designer sheep. The Globe and Mail. A. 19; Cohen, R. (30.03.1997). Hello, Dolly. The Washington Post. W04; Kolata, G. (24.02.1997). With cloning of a sheep, the ethical ground shifts. New York Times. Front page; Anonymous (01.03.1997). Clone the clowns. The Economist, 341, 80. См. также: Nelkin, D., & Lindee, M. S. (2004). The DNA mystique. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. P. 197; Condit, C. M. (1999). The meanings of the gene. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. P. 145.

531

Condit, C. M. (2010). Public attitudes and beliefs about genetics. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 11, 339–359; Calnan, M., Montaner, D., & Horne, R. (2005). How acceptable are innovative health-care technologies? A survey of public beliefs and attitudes in England and Wales. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 1937–1948; Shepherd, R., Barnett, J., Cooper, H., Coyle, A., Moran-Ellis, J., Senior, V., et al. (2007). Towards an understanding of British public attitudes concerning human cloning. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 377–392; The Wellcome Trust (1998). Public perspectives on human cloning. Medicine Society Programme (www.wellcome.ac.uk).

532

Tachibana, M., Amato, P., Sparman, M., Gutierrez, N. M., Tippner-Hedges, R., Ma, H., et al. (2013). Human embryonic stem cells derived by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Cell, 153, 1228–1238.

533

Shin, T., Kraemer, D., Pryor, J., Liu, L., Rugila, J., Howe, L., et al. (2002). Brief communications. Cell biology: A cat cloned by nuclear transplantation. Nature, 415, 859. См. также: Francis, R. C. (2011). Epigenetics: The ultimate mystery of inheritance. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; and Yin, Sophia (21.06.2011). Cloning cats: Rainbow and CC prove that cloning wont resurrect your pet[Blog post] (http://drsophiayin.com/blog/entry/cloning-cats-rainbow-and-cc-prove-that-cloning-wont-resurrect-your-pet).

534

Ishino, Y., Shinagawa, H., Makino, K., Amemura, M., & Nakata, A. (1987). Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. Journal of Bacteriology, 169, 5429–5433.

535

Английское название (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) дает аббревиатуру CRISPR. Прим. перев.

536

Английское название (CRISPR associated protein # 9) дает аббревиатуру Cas9. Прим. перев.

537

Barrangou, R., Fremaux, C., Deveau, H., Richards, M., Boyaval, P., Moineau, S., et al. (2007). CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes. Science, 315, 1709–1712; Hsu, P. D., Lander, E. S., & Zhang, F. (2014). Development and applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for genome engineering. Cell, 157, 1262–1278; Jinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A., & Charpentier, E. (2012). A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science, 337, 816–821. ОбзорыCRISPR, написанные простым языком, см.: Pollack, A. (11.05.2015). Jennifer Doudna, a pioneer who helped simplify genome editing. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/12/science/jennifer-doudna-crispr-cas9-genetic-engineering.html?smid=pl-share); Kahn, J. (09.11.2015). The Crispr quandary. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/15/magazine/the-crispr-quandary.html?action=click&pgtype=Homepage®ion=CColumn&module=MostEmailed&version=Full&src=me&WT.nav=MostEmailed).

538

Baltimore, D., Berg, P., Botchan, M., Carroll, D., Charo, R. A., Church, G., et al. (2015). A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification. Science, 348, 36–38.

539

Liang, P., Xu, Y., Zhang, X., Ding, C., Huang, R., Zhang, Z., et al. (2015). CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes. Protein & Cell, 6 (5), 363–372.

540

Cyranoski, D., & Reardon, S. (22.04.2015). Chinese scientists genetically modify human embryos. Nature News (http://www.nature.com/news/chinese-scientists-genetically-modify-human-embryos-1.17378).

541

Cressey, D., Abbott, A., & Ledford, H. (18.09.2015). UK scientists apply for licence to edit genes in human embryos. Nature News (http://www.nature.com/news/uk-scientists-apply-for-licence-to-edit-genes-in-human-embryos-1.18394).

542

Yang, L., Güell, M., Niu, D., George, H., Lesha, E., Grishin, D., et al. (2015). Genome-wide inactivation of porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs). Science, 350, 1101–1104.

543

Конференция была проведена в декабре 2015 года с целью разработки этических принципов исследований с использованием CRISPR (https://innovativegenomics.org/international-summit-on-human-gene-editing/).

544

Цитата из пятой серии документального сериалаDNA: Pandora’s Box, PBS (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qe4EW3AOgzs).

545

Metzl, J. F. (10.10.2014). The genetics epidemic: The revolution in DNA science and what to do about it. Foreign Affairs (https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2014-10-10/genetics-epidemic). Miller, G. (2013). Chinese eugenics. The Edge (http://edge.org/response-detail/23838).

546

Winkelman, W. D., Missmer, S. A., Myers, D., & Ginsburg, E. S. (2015). Public perspectives on the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Journal of Assisted ReproductiveGenetics, 32, 665–675. Hudson, K., & Scott, J. (2002). Public awareness and attitudes about genetic technology. Washington, DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center.

547

Duster, T. (2003). Backdoor to eugenics. New York, NY: Routledge.

548

Schwartz, B., Ward, A., Monterosso, J., Lyubomirsky, S., White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Maximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1178–1197.

549

Schwartz, B., Ward, A., Monterosso, J., Lyubomirsky, S., White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Maximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1178–1197.

550

Power, R. A., Steinberg, S., Bjornsdottir, G., Rietveld, C. A., Abdellaoui, A., Nivard, M. M., et al. (2015). Polygenic risk scores for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder predict creativity. Nature Neuroscience, 18, 953–955; Andreasen, N. C. (1987). Creativity and mental illness: Prevalence rates in writers and their first-degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1288–1292.

551

Brenner, S. (30.10.2009). The personalized genome: Do I want to know? Gairdner Foundation 50>thAnniversary, Toronto, ON (http://mediacast.ic.utoronto.ca/20091030-GFS-P4/index.htm).

552

Данные взяты из издания: Forer, B. R. (1949). The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 44, 118–123.

553

Smoller, J. W., Paulus, M. P., Fagerness, J. A., Purcell, S., Yamaki, L. H., Hirshfeld-Becker, D., et al. (2008). Influence of RGS2 on anxiety-related temperament, personality, and brain function. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 298–308.

555

Pinker, S. (7.01.2009). My genome, my self. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/magazine/11Genome-t.html?_r=0).

556

См.: Collins, F. S. (2010). The language of life. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. P. 23.

557

Pinker, S. (07.01.2009). My genome, my self. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/magazine/11Genome-t.html?_r=0).

559

Austin, J. C. (2010). Re-conceptualizing risk in genetic counseling: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 19, 228–234.

560

Evans, D. G. R., Blair, V., Greenhalgh, R., Hopwood, P., & Howell, A. (1994). The impact of genetic counseling on risk perception in women with a family history of breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 70, 934–938. Smerecnik, C. M. R., Mesters, I., Verweij, E., de Vries, N. K., & de Vries, H. (2009). A systematic review of the impact of genetic counseling on risk perception accuracy. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 18, 217–228.

561

Цит. по: Sheldon Reed reported in Stern, A. M. (2012). Telling genes(p. 47). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

562

Rothman, B. K. (1986). The tentative pregnancy(p. 43). New York, NY: Viking.

563

Слова Дианы Пуналес-Морехон, цит. по: Stern, A. M. (2012). Telling genes(p. 40). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

564

Cheung, B. Y. (2016). Out of my control: The effects of perceived genetic etiology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of British Columbia.

565

Faraone, S. V., Smoller, J. W., Pato, C. N., Sullivan, P., & Tsuang, M. T. (2008). Editorial: The new neuropsychiatric genetics. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 147B, 1–2.

566

Benjamin, D. J., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., Dawes, C. T., Koellinger, P. D., Magnusson, P. K. E., et al. (2012). The genetic architecture of economic and political preferences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 109, 8026–8031.

567

Критику ценности исследований GWAS см.: Goldstein, D. B. (2009). Common genetic variation and human traits. New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 1696–1698.

568

Dobbs, D. (21.05.2015). What is your DNA worth?BuzzFeed (http://www.buzzfeed.com/daviddobbs/weighing-the-promises-of-big-genomics#.vjnnjJzwK).

569

Wang, K., Zhang, H., Ma, D., Bucan, M., Glessner, J. T., Abrahams, B. S., et al. (2009). Common genetic variants on 5p14.1 associate with autism spectrum disorders. Nature, 459, 528–533.

570

Bloomberg News (29.04.2009). Researchers identify autism genes that give clues to brain structure. New York Daily News (http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/researchers-identify-autism-genes-give-clues-brain-structure-article-1.360034).

571

Weiss, L. A. (2009). A genome-wide linkage and association scan reveals novel loci for autism. Nature, 461, 802–808.

572

Список эффектов, с которыми был связан этот ген, см.: Charney, E., & English, W. (2012). Candidate genes and political behavior. American Political Science Review, 106, 1–34.

573

Величина воздействия гена на тягу к новизне равна d = 0,06, что соответствует R>2чуть меньше 0,001 (см.: Kluger, A. N., Siegfried, Z., & Ebstein, R. P. (2002). A meta-analysis of the association between DRD4 polymorphism and novelty seeking. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 712–717).

574

Эта цифра завышена потому, что существует не только два варианта числа повторов этой изменчивой области гена, от которой зависит величина его воздействия на передачу дофамина. Есть как минимум 10 вариантов количества повторов – от 2 до 11 (последнее встречается гораздо реже). Проблема в том, что в различных исследованиях разные варианты этих аллелей обозначаются как сильные или слабые в отношении влияния на передачу дофамина, что затрудняет их сравнение. Некоторые ученые только полиморфизм с 7 повторениями называют «сильным» и противопоставляют его всем остальным (например, Ebstein, R. P., et al. [1996]). Другие так же выделяют 6, 7 и 8 повторов (скажем, Swift et al. [2000]). В ряде исследований 2, 3, 4 и 5 противопоставляются 6, 7 и 8 (например, Vadenberg et al. [1997]). Еще ученые противопоставляют: 5 и 6–2, 3 и 4 (Ono et al. [1997]); 2, 3, 4, 5 и 6–7 и больше (Garcia, J. R., et al. [2010]); 2, 3 и 4–5, 6 и 7 (Tomitaka et al. [1999]); 2, 3 и 4–5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 и 11 (Chen et al., 1999); 7 и 2 – всем остальным (Reist et al. [2007]) и, наконец, 7 и 2–4 (Kitayama et al. [2014]). См.: Chen, C., Burton, M., Greenberger, E., & Dmitrieva, J. (1999). Population migration and the variation of dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) allele frequencies around the globe. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 309–324; Ebstein, R. P., et al. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics, 12, 78–80; Garcia, J. R., MacKillop, J., Aller, E. L., Merriwether, A. M., Wilson, D. S., & Lum, J. K. (2010). Associations between dopamine D4 receptor gene variation with both infidelity and sexual promiscuity. PLoS ONE5 (11): e14162; Kitayama, S., King, A., Yoon, C., Tompson, S., Huff, S., & Liberzon, I. (2014). The dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) moderates cultural difference in independent versus interdependent social orientation. Psychological Science, 25, 1169–1177; Ono, Y., Manki, H., Yoshimura, K., Muramatsu, T., Mizushima, H., Higuchi, S., et al. (1997). Association between dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism and novelty seeking in Japanese subjects. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74, 501–503; Reist, C., Ozdemir, V., Wang, E., Hashemzadeh, M., Mee, S., & Moyzis, R. (2007). Novelty seeking and the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) revisited in Asians. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, 144B, 453–457; Swift, G., Larsen, B., Hawi, Z., & Gill, J. (2000). Novelty seeking traits and D4 dopamine receptors. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 222–223; Tomitaka, M., Tomitaka, S., Otuka, Y., Kim, K., Matuki, H., Sakamoto, K., et al. (1999). Association between novelty seeking and dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) exon III polymorphism in Japanese subjects. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 469–471; Vandenbergh, D. J., Zonderman, A. B., Wang, J., Uhl, G. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (1997). No association between novelty seeking and dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III seven repeat alleles in Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging participants. Molecular Psychiatry, 2, 417–419.

575

Более подробно см.: Murray, A. B., Carson, M. J., Morris, C. A., & Beckwith, J. (2010). Illusions of scientific legitimacy: misrepresented science in the direct-to-consumer genetic-testing marketplace. Trends in Genetics, 26 (11), 459–461.

576

Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2010. Principle Investigators (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63 (SS02), 1–21.

577

Berg, J. M., & Geschwind, D. H. (2012). Autism genetics: Searching for specificity and convergence. Genome Biology, 13, 247–263.

578

Sanders, S. J., Ercan-Sencicek, A. G., Hus, V., Luo, R., Murtha, M. T., Moreno-De-Luca, D., et al. (2011). Multiple recurrent de novo CNVs, including duplications of the 7q11.23 Williams syndrome region, are strongly associated with autism. Neuron, 70, 863–885; Levy, D., Ronemus, M., Yamrom, B., Lee, Y. H., Leotta, A., Kendall, J., et al. (2011). Rare de novo and transmitted copy-number variation in autistic spectrum disorders. Neuron, 70, 886–897; Gilman, S. R., Iossifov, I., Levy, D., Ronemus, M., Wigler, M., & Vitkup, D. (2011). Rare de novo variants associated with autism implicate a large functional network of genes involved in formation and function of synapses. Neuron, 70, 898–907; Anney, R., Klei, L., Pinto, D., Almeida, J., Bacchelli, E., Baird, G., et al. (2012). Individual common variants exert weak effects on the risk for autism spectrum disorders. Human Molecular Genetics, 21, 4781–4792; Kong, A., Frigge, M. L., Masson, G., Besenbacher, S., Sulem, P., Magnusson, G., et al. (2012). Rate of de novo mutations and the importance of father’s age to disease risk. Nature, 488, 471–475; Chan, J. A. (2015). The emerging picture of autism spectrum disorder: Genetics and pathology. Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease, 10, 111–144.

579

Weintraub, K. (2011). Autism counts. Nature, 479, 22–24.

580

См. Gruber, J. (2013). The unfulfilled promise of genomics. In S. Krimsky & G. Gruber (Eds.)Genetic explanations(p. 270–282). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

581

Joseph, J., & Ratner, C. (2013). The fruitless search for genes in psychiatry and psychology. In S. Krimsky & G. Gruber (Eds.)Genetic explanations(p. 96–97). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. См. также: Chaufan, C. (2007). How much can a large population study on genes, environments, and their interactions and common diseases contribute to the health of the American people?Social Science & Medicine, 65, 1730–1741.

582

Comfort, N. (29.01.2014). Genetic determinism: Why we never learn – and why it matters[Blog post] (http://genotopia.scienceblog.com/387/genetic-determinism-why-we-never-learn-and-why-it-matters/).

583

Pearson, H. (2009). Human genetics: One gene, twenty years. Nature, 164–169, 460.

584

Amaral, M. D. (2015). Novel personalized therapies for cystic fibrosis: Treating the basic defect in all patients. Journal of Internal Medicine, 277, 155–166.

585

Цитата со с. 165 Pearson, H. (2009). Human genetics: One gene, twenty years. Nature, 460, 164–169.

586

О причинах медленных темпов развития методов лечения на основе генома см.: Palmer, B. (30.09.2013). Where are all the miracle drugs?Slate Magazine (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/human_genome/2013/09/human_genome_drugs_where_are_the_miracle_cures_from_genomics_did_the_genome.1.html); Wade, N. (12.06.2010). A decade later, genetic map yields few new cures. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/13/health/research/13genome.html?_r=0).

587

Chapman, P. B., Hauschild, A., Robert, C., Haanen, J. B., Ascierto, P., Larkin, J., et al. (2011). Improved survival with vemurafenib in melanoma with BRAF V600E mutation. New England Journal of Medicine, 364, 2507–2516.

588

O’Brien, S. G. (2003). Imatinib compared with interferon and low-dose cytarabine for newly diagnosed chronic-phase chronic myeloid leukemia. New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 994–1004.

589

Rodin, J., & Langer, E. J. (1977). Long-term effects of a control-relevant intervention with the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 897–902.

590

Ornish, D., Brown, S. E., Scherwitz, L. W., Billings, J. H., Armstrong, W. T., Ports, T. A., et al. (1990). Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? The Lifestyle Heart Trial. The Lancet, 129–133, 336.

591

Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002). Reduction in the incidence of Type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 393–403.

592

Smyth, J. M., Stone, A. A., Hurewitz, A., & Kaell, A. (1999). Effects of writing about stressful experiences on symptom reduction in patients with asthma or rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 1304–1309.

593

Creswell, J. D., Myers, H. F., Cole, S. W., & Irwin, M. R. (2009). Mindfulness meditation training effects on CD4+ T lymphocytes in HIV-1 infected adults: A small randomized controlled trial. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 23, 184–188.

594

Spiegel, D., Bloom, J. R., Kraemer, H. C., & Gottheil, E. (1989). Effect of psychosocial treatment on survival of patients with metastatic breast cancer. The Lancet, 334, 888–891; Goodwin, P. J., Leszcz, M., Ennis, M., Koopmans, J., Vincent, L., Guther, H., et al. (2001). The effect of group psychosocial support on survival in metastatic breast cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1719–1726.

595

Kluger, J. (02.12.2010). Too many one-night stands? Blame your genes. Time (http://healthland.time.com/2010/12/02/too-many-one-night-stands-blame-your-genes/); Firth, N., & Macrae, F. (03.12.2010). The Love-Cheat Gene: One in four born to be unfaithful, claim scientists. Daily Mail (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1334932/The-love-cheat-gene-One-born-unfaithful-claim-scientists.html).

596

Прекрасное обсуждение темы «ученых, которые обнаружили ген, отвечающий за…» приведено в лекции доктора Стива Джонса Nature or Nurture (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ksP34GYwbY).

597

Conrad, P. (2002). Genetics and behavior in the news: Dilemmas of a rising paradigm. In J. S. Alper, C. Ard, A. Asch, J. Beckwith, P. Conrad, & L. N. Geller (Eds.)The double-edged helix: Social implications of genetics in a diverse society. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; Landau, M. J., Meier, B. P., & Keefer, L. A. (2010). A metaphor-enriched social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1045–1067.

599

О метафорах, применяемых для описания генов, см.: Condit, C. M. (1999). The meanings of the gene. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press; Francis, R. C. (2011). Epigenetics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Sapolsky, R. (1997, Oct.). A gene for nothing. § 6. Discover (http://discovermagazine.com/1997/oct/agenefornothing1242); Hubbard, R., & Wald, E. (1997). Exploding the gene myth: How genetic information is produced and manipulated by scientists, physicians, employers, insurance companies, educators and law enforcers. Boston, MA: Beacon Press; Keller, E. F. (2000). The century of the gene. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

600

Изучение менделевской теории с большей вероятностью приводит к большему генетическому детерминизму, чем знакомство с концепциями о взаимодействии генов с окружающей средой (Radick, G. (2016). Teach students the biology of their time. Nature, 293, 533).

601

См.: Walker, I., & Read, J. (2002). The differential effectiveness of psychosocial and biogenetic causal explanations in reducing negative attitudes toward «mental illness». Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65, 313–325; Boysen, G. A., & Gabreski, J. D. (2012). The effect of combined etiological information on attitudes about mental disorders associated with violent and nonviolent behaviors. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31, 852–877; Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2016). Efforts to reduce essentialist responses to genetic accounts. Unpublished data. The University of British Columbia.

602

Ream, C., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2016). The role of genetics education on genetic essentialism. Unpublished data. The University of British Columbia; Castéra, J., & Clément, P. (2014). Teachers’ conceptions about the genetic determinism of human behaviour: A survey in 23 countries. Science & Education, 23, 417–443.

603

Обзор литературы по теме см.: Nisbett, R. E. (2015). Mindware: Tools for smart thinking. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

604

Примеры см.: Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal ofExperimental Social Psychology, 48, 1267–1278.

605

Несколько примеров приведены в изданиях: Beaman, A. L., Barnes, P. J., Klentz, B., & McQuirk, B. (1978). Increasing helping rates through informational dissemination: Teaching pays. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 406–411; Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16, 175–179.

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