Захватчики: Люди и собаки против неандертальцев [заметки]

Сноски

1

Неаборигенного, чужеродного вида, который может непредсказуемо повлиять на местную фауну и флору. – Прим. ред.

2

У каждого биологического вида (разных размеров, скорости размножения и т. п.) МЖП своя и может сильно варьироваться. – Прим. ред.

3

Аллель (от греч. allelon – друг друга, взаимно) – одна из возможных форм одного и того же гена. Аллели расположены в одинаковых участках (локусах) гомологичных (парных) хромосом; определяют варианты развития одного и того же признака, контролируемого данным геном. – Прим. пер.

4

Красный волк в мире еще существует, хотя весьма редок. Речь идет о вымирании на конкретной территории. – Прим. ред.

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A. Rosas, E. Martinez, J. Canaveras et al., «Paleobiology and Comparative Morphology of a Late Neanderthal Sample from El Sidron, Asturias, Spain,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103 (2006): 19266–19271.

118

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119

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120

Bar-Yosef, «Eat What Is There,» 338.

121

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122

См., например, O. Bar-Yosef and J.-G. Bordes, «Who Were the Makers of the Chatelperronian Culture?» Journal of Human Evolution 59 (2010): 586–593; T. Higham, R. Jacobi, M. Julien et al., «Chronology of the Grotte du Renne (France) and Implications for the Context of Ornaments and Human Remains within the Chatelperronian,» Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Sciences USA 107 (2010): 20234–20239.

123

P. Shipman, не опубликовано. Убрав данные, основанные на шательперонских стоянках, я получила следующие оценки: количество стоянок: N = 26 мустьерских и 147 ориньякских. Пересчитанная плотность распределения орудий, шт/м2/1000 лет: для девяти мустьерских стоянок среднее значение составляет 6,6; для 12 ориньякских – 1,76. Тест Манна – Уитни показывает, что это отличие статистически значимо, значение параметра p < 0,002. Масса мяса: для мустьерских стоянок нет данных, поэтому невозможно провести статистическое сравнение с ориньякскими стоянками, для которых среднее значение (по 15 стоянкам) составляет 152,8 кг. Площадь стоянок: средняя площадь пяти мустьерских стоянок составляет 110 м2, тогда как средняя площадь 12 ориньякских стоянок равна 243,8 м2. Хотя ориньякские стоянки очевидно больше по размерам, чем мустьерские, статистическое сравнение лишено смысла из-за влияния многих факторов на площадь раскопок (финансирование, количество исследователей в группе, проводившей раскопки, географические факторы). За дополнительными разъяснениями по процедуре и сравнениями можно обратиться к статье Мелларс и Френч «Десятикратное увеличение популяции» (Mellars and French, «Tenfold Population Increase»).

124

B. Hockett and J. Haws, «Nutritional Ecology and the Human Demography of Neandertal Extinction,» Quaternary International 137 (2005): 21–34, doi: 10.1016/j. quaint. 2004.11.017; B. Hockett, «The Consequence of Middle Paleolithic Diets on Pregnant Neandertal Women,» Quaternary International 264 (2011): 78–82; L. Dalen, L. Orlando, B. Shapiro et al., «Partial Genetic Turnover in Neanderthals: Continuity in the East and Population Replacement in the West,» Molecular Biology and Evolution 29 (2012): 1893–1897.

125

N. Conard, «The Demise of the Neanderthal Cultural Niche and the Beginning of the Upper Paleolithic in Southwestern Germany,» in Neanderthal Lifeways, Subsistence, and Technology: One Hundred Fifty Years of Neanderthal Study, eds. N. Conard and J. Richter (New York: Springer, 2011), 228.

126

N. Conard, «Changing View of the Relationship between Neanderthals and Modern Humans,» in When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met, ed. N. Conard (Tubingen: Verlag, 2006), 11.

127

Higham et al., «The Timing and Spatio-Temporal Patterning.»

128

D. Adler, O. Bar-Yosef, A. Belfer-Cohen et al., «Dating the Demise: Neanderthal Extinction and the Establishment of Modern Humans in the Southern Caucasus,» Journal of Human Evolution 55 (2008): 817–833; Pinhasa etal., «Revised Age of Late Neanderthal Occupation»; J.-M. Lopez-Garcia, H.-A. Blain, M. Bennasar et al., «Heinrich Event 4 Characterized by Terrestrial Proxies in South-western Europe,» Climate of the Past 9 (2013): 1053–1064.

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130

C. Finlayson, F. Pacheco, J. Rodriguez-Vidal et al., «Late Survival of Neanderthals at the Southernmost Extreme of Europe,» Nature 443 (2006): 850–853.

131

Dalen et al., «Partial Genetic Turnover in Neanderthals.»

132

Defleur et al., «Neanderthal Cannibalism at Moula-Guercy»; Rosas et al., «Paleobiology and Comparative Morphology of a Late Neanderthal Sample.»

133

S. Churchill, R. Franciscus, H. McKean-Peraza et al., «Shanidar 3 Neandertal Rib Puncture Wound and Paleolithic Weaponry», Journal of Human Evolution 57 (2009): 163–178, doi: 10.1016/j. jhevol. 2009.05.010.

134

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135

C. Finlayson, The Human Who Went Extinct; Why Neanderthals Died Out and We Survived (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 118–119.

136

Froehle and Churchill, «Energetic Competition between Neandertals and Anatomically Modern Humans»; L. Aiello and P. Wheeler, 2003. «Neanderthal Thermoregulation and the Glacial Climate,» in Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation, eds. T. van Andel and W. Davies (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, 2003), 147–166; S. Churchill, «Bioenergetic Perspectives on Neandertal Thermoregulatory and Activity Budgets,» in Neanderthals Revisited: New Approaches and Perspectives, eds. K. Harvatiand T. Harrison (Dordrecht: Springer, 2006), 113–131; M. Sorensen and W. Leonard, «Neanderthal Energetics and Foraging Efficiency,» Journal of Human Evolution 40 (2001): 483–495; A. Steegmann, F. Cerny, and T. Holliday, «Neandertal Cold Adaptation: Physiological and Energetic Factors,» American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 566–583.

137

Sorensen, Leonard, «Neanderthal Energetics and Foraging Efficiency»; Steegmann et al., «Neandertal Cold Adaptation.»

138

Aiello, Wheeler, «Neanderthal Thermoregulation.»

139

J. Gittleman, S. Thompson, «Energy Allocation in Mammalian Reproduction,» American Zoologist 28 (1988): 863–875.

140

B. Hockett, «The Consequences of Middle Paleolithic Diets on Pregnant Neanderthal Women,» Quaternary International 264 (2012): 78–82, p. 79.

141

B. Hockett, «The Consequences of Middle Paleolithic Diets on Pregnant Neanderthal Women,» Quaternary International 264 (2012): 78–82, p. 81.

142

T. Holliday, «Postcranial Evidence of Cold Adaptation in European Neandertals,» American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104 (1997): 245–258.

143

C. Carbone, J. Gittelman, «A Common Rule for the Scaling of Carnivore Density,» Science 295 (2002): 2273–2276.

144

См. прекрасный обзор S. E. Churchill, Thin on the Ground (New York: Basic Books, 2014).

145

C. Hertler and R. Volmer, «Assessing Prey Competition in Fossil Carnivore Communities – A Scenario for Prey Competition and Its Evolutionary Consequences for Tigers in Pleistocene Java,» Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 257 (2008): 67–80; H. Hemmer, O. Owen-Smith, and M. Mills, «Predator-Prey Size Relationships in an African Large-Mammal Food Web,» Journal of Animal Ecology 77 (2008): 173–183, doi: 10.1111/j.l365–2656.2007.01314.x.

146

S. Miinzel, M. Stiller, M. Hofreiter et al., «Pleistocene Bears in the Swabian Jura (Germany): Genetic Replacement, Ecological Displacement, Extinctions and Survival,» Quaternary International 245 (2011): 225–237.

147

A. Turner and M. Anton, The Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives: An Illustrated Guide to Their Evolution and Natural History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); W. Anyonge, «Body Mass in Large Extant and Extinct Carnivores,» Journal of Zoology London 231 (1993): 339–350.

148

R. Guthrie, Frozen Fauna of the Mammoth Steppe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).

149

Turner, Anton. Big Cats.

150

Anyonge, «Body Mass in Large Extant and Extinct Carnivores.»

151

Churchill, Thin on the Ground, ch. 8.

152

Hemmer et al., «Predator-Prey Size Relationships.»

153

Данные из работы D. Brook and D. Bowman, «The Uncertain Blitzkrieg of Pleistocene Megarauna,» Journal of Btogeography 31 (2004): 517–523.

154

C. Carbone, G. Mace, S. C. Roberts et al., «Energetic Constraints on the Diet of Terrestrial Carnivores,» Nature 402 (1999): 287, doi: 10.1038/46266.

155

Hertler and Volmer, «Assessing Prey Competition.»

156

Churchill, Thin on the Ground, 271–273.

157

D. Stanford, R. Bonnichsen, and R. Morlan, «The Ginsberg Experiment: Modern and Prehistoric Evidence of a Bone-Flaking Technology,» Science 212 (1981): 438–440, doi: 10.1126/science. 212.4493.438.

158

D. Grayson and F. Delpech, «Tie Large Mammals of Roc de Combe (Lot, France): The Chatelperronian and Aurignacian Assemblages,» Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27 (2008): 359.

159

H. Bocherens, D. Drucker, D. Bonjean et al., «Isotopic Evidence for Dietary Ecology of Cave Lion (Panthera spelaea) in North-Western Europe: Prey Choice, Competition and Implications for Extinction,» Quaternary International 245 (2011): 249–261.

160

Churchill, Thin on the Ground, 264–276.

161

N. Carter, B. Shrestha, J. Karki, N. Pradhan et al., «Coexistence between Wildlife and Humans at Fine Spatial Scales,» Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109 (2012): 15360–15365.

162

E. Ghezzo, A. Palchetti, and L. Rook, «Recovering Data from Historical Collections: Stratigraphic and Spatial Reconstruction of the Outstanding Carnivoran Record from the Late Pleistocene Equi Cave (Apuane Alps, Italy),» Quaternary Science Reviews 96 (2014): 168–179.

163

C. Diedrich, «Late Pleistocene Leopards across Europe: Northernmost European German Population, Highest Elevated Records in the Swiss Alps, Complete Skeletons in the Bosnia Herzegowina Dinarids and Comparison to the Ice Age Cave Art,» Quaternary Science Reviews 76 (2013): 167–193; G. von Petzinger and A. Nowell, «A Place in Time: Situating Chauvet within the Long Chronology of Symbolic Behavioral Development,» Journal of Human Evolution, in press, doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol. 2014.02.022.

164

Münzel et al., «Pleistocene Bears in the Swabian Jura.»

165

Münzel et al., «Pleistocene Bears in the Swabian Jura.», с. 231.

166

«True Causes for Extinction of Cave Bear Revealed: More Human Expansion than Climate Change,» Science News, August 25, 2010.

167

M. Stiller, G. Baryshnikov, H. Bocherens et al., «Withering Away – 25,000 Years of Genetic Decline Preceded Cave Bear Extinction,» Molecular Biology and Evolution 27 (2010): 975–978.

168

Mellars and French, «Tenfold Population Increase.»

169

Münzel et al., «Pleistocene Bears in the Swabian Jura,» 232–233.

170

Froehle and Churchill, «Energetic Competition between Neandertals and Anatomically Modern Humans.»

171

P. Wojtal, J. Wilczyński, Z. Bocheński et al., «Tie Scene of Spectacular Feasts: Animal Remains from Pavlov I South-east, Czech Republic,» Quaternary International 252 (2012): 122–141.

172

S. Kuhn and M. C. Stiner, «What's a Mother to Do? Tie Division of Labor among Neandertals and Modern Humans in Eurasia,» Current Anthropology 47 (2006): 953–980.

173

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174

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175

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176

K. Richards and M. Jagger, «You Can't Always Get What You Want.» Let It Bleed, ABKCO Records, 2002.

177

Mellars and French, «Tenfold Population Increase.»

178

N. Conard, «The Cultural Niche»; N. Conard, M. Bolus, P. Goldberg et al., «The Last Neanderthals and the First Modern Humans in the Swabian Jura,» in When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met, ed. N. Conard (Tubingen: Kerns Verlag, 2006), 305–342.

179

Данные о плотности распределения взяты из работ Haynes, Mammoths, Mastodonts, and Elephants; G. Haynes, «Mammoth Landscapes: Good Country for Hunter-Gatherers,» Quaternary International 142/143 (2006): 20–29; F. De Boer, F. van Langevelde, H. Prins et al., «Understanding Spatial Differences in African Elephant Densities and Occurrence, a Continent-Wide Analysis,» Biological Conservation 159 (2013): 468–476; IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group, www.elephantdatabase.org.

180

Wilczyriski et al., «Spatial Organization of the Gravettian Mammoth Hunters' Site,» 3638.

181

L. Demay, S. Pean, and M. Patou-Mathis, «Mammoths used as food and building resources by Neanderthals: Zooarchaeological study applied to layer 4, Molodova I (Ukraine),» Quaternary International 276/277 (2012): 212–226.

182

R. H. Gargett, «One Mammoth Steppe Too Far,» Subversive Archaeologist (blog), December 21, 2011, http://www.thesubversivearchaeologist.com/2011/12/one-mammoth-steppe-too-far.html.

183

Higham et al., «The Timing and Spatio-Temporal Patterning.»

184

H. Bocherens and D. Drucker, «Dietary Competition between Neanderthals and Modern Humans: Insights from Stable Isotopes,» in When Neanderthals and Modern Humans Met, ed. N. Conard (Tubingen: Kerns Verlag, 2006), 129–143; Germonpre et al., «Possible Evidence of Mammoth Hunting»; P. Semal, H. Rougier, I. Crevecoeur et al., «New Data on the Late Neandertals: Direct Dating of the Belgian Spy Fossils,» American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138 (2009): 421–428.

185

N. McDermott, «Did Climate Change Drive the Woolly Mammoth to Extinction? Genetic Tests Reveal Species Declined as Weather Warmed,» Daily Mail, September 11, 2013.

186

M. Germonpre, M. Sablin, R. E. Stevens et al., «Fossil Dogs and Wolves from Palaeolithic Sites in Belgium, the Ukraine and Russia: Osteometry, Ancient DNA and Stable Isotopes,» Journal of Archaeological Science 36 (2009): 473–490.

187

M. Germonpre, M. Laznickova-Galetova, and M. Sablin, «Palaeolithic Dog Skulls at the Gravettian Predmosti Site, the Czech Republic,» Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012): 184–202.

188

M. Germonpré, J. Ràikônnen, M. Lâznickovâ-Galetovâ et al., «Mandibles from Palaeolithic Dogs and Pleistocene Wolves at Predmosti, the Czech Republic,» in The World of Gravettian Hunters, ed. P. Wojtal, Institute of Systematics and the Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences (2013), 23–24; M. Germonpré, M. Lâznickovâ-Galetovâ, R. Losey et al., «Large Canids at the Gravettian Predmosti site, the Czech Republic: The Mandible,» Quaternary International (in press): 1–19.

189

Germonpré et al., «Fossil Dogs and Wolves,» 482.

190

N. Ovodov, S. Crockford, Y. Kuzmina et al., «A 33,000-Year-Old Incipient Dog from the Altai Mountains of Siberia: Evidence of the Earliest Domestication Disrupted by the Last Glacial Maximum,» PLoS ONE 6, no. 7 (2011): e22821.

191

O. Thalmann, B. Shapiro, P. Cui et al., «Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of Ancient Canids Suggest a European Origin of Domestic Dogs,» Science 342 (2013): 871–874.

192

Ibid., 872.

193

R. Wayne, personal communication to author, 2012.

194

J. Avise, On Evolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 49–50.

195

E. Ostrander and R. Wayne, «The Canine Genome,» Genome Research 15 (2005): 1706–1716, doi: 10.1101/gr.3736605.

196

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См. обзор в книге J. Clutton-Brock, Animals as Domesticates: A World View through History (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2012).

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R. Coppinger and L. Coppinger, Dogs: A Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior, and Evolution (New York: Scribner, 2001).

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V. Geist, «When Do Wolves Become Dangerous to Humans?» September 29, 2007, http://www.vargfakta.se/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Geist-when-do-wolves-become-dangerous-to-humans-pt-l.pdf.

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L. Marquer, V. Lebretona, T. Otto et al., «Charcoal Scarcity in Epigravettian Settlements with Mammoth Bone Dwellings: The Taphonomic Evidence from Mezhyrich (Ukraine),» Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012): 109–120.

202

См., напр.: S. Leshchinshy and O. Bukharova, «Geochemical Stress of the Krakow-Spadzista Street Mammoth Population Demonstrated by Electron Microscopy,» in The World of Gravettian Hunters, Institute of Systematics and the Evolution of Animals, ed. P. Wojtal (Krakow: Polish Academy of Sciences, 2013), 45–49; S. Leshchinsky, «Lugovskoye: Environment, Taphonomy, and Origin of a Paleofaunal Site,» Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 1, no. 25 (2006): 33–40, doi: 10.1134/S1563011006010026.

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N. Bicho, A. Pastoors, and B. Auffermann, eds., Humans Best Friends – Dogs… and Fire! Pleistocene Foragers on the Iberian Peninsula: Their Culture and Environment (Mettmann: Wissenschaftliche Schriften des Neanderthal Museums 7, 2013): 217–242.

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208

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210

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213

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214

Kuhn and Stiner, «What's a Mother to Do?».

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216

Wqjtal et al., «The Scene of Spectacular Feasts,» 135–137.

217

Данные из работы R. Musil, «Palaeoenvironment at Gravettian Sites Central Europe with Emphasis on Moravia (Czech Republic),» Quartär SI (2010): 95–123.

218

H. Bocherens, D. Drucker, M. Germonpré et al., «Reconstruction of the Gravettian Food-Web at Predmosti I Using Multi-Isotopic Tracking (13C, 15N, 34S) of Bone Collagen,» Quaternary International, in press.

219

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220

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221

P. Shipman, «And the Last Shall be First,» in Animal Secondary Products: Archaeological Perspectives on Domestic Animal Exploitation in the Neolithic and Bronze Age, ed. H. Greenfield (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2014), 40–54.

222

L. Lord, «A Comparison of the Sensory Development of Wolves (Canis lupus lupus) and Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris),» Ethology 119 (2013): 110–120, doi: 10.1111/eth.l2044.

223

B. Hare and V. Woods, The Genius of Dogs: How Dogs Are than You Think (New York: Dutton, 2013), 76–77.

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L. Trut, «Early Canid Domestication: The Farm-Fox Experiment,» American Scientist 87 (1999): 160, doi: 10.1511/1999.2.160; L. Trut, E. Naumenko, and D. Belyaev, «Change in Pituitary-Adrenal Function in Silver Foxes under Selection for Domestication,» Genetika 5 (1972): 35–43 (in Russian, English abstract).

225

Shipman, The Animal Connection; Shipman, «And the Last.»

226

J. Bohannon, «Who's (Socially) Smarter: The Dog or the Wolf?» Science Now, May 28, 2013.

227

P. Smith and C. Litchfield, «How Well Do Dingoes, Canis dingo, Perform on the Detour Task?» Animal Behaviour 80 (2010): 155–162.

228

Geist, «When Do Wolves Become Dangerous?»

229

Hare and Woods, Genius of Dogs, 14.

230

Soffer, Upper Paleolithic of the Central Russian Plain, 258, 187.

231

Palomares and Caro, «Interspecific Killing.»

232

Vanak and Gompper, «Dogs Canis familiaris as Carnivores.»

233

Wojtal et al., «The Scene of Spectacular Feasts.»

234

G. Haynes, «Utilization and Skeletal Disturbances of North American Prey Carcasses,» Arctic 35 (1982): 266–382.

235

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236

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237

R. Losey, S. Garvie-Lok, J. Leonard et al., «Burying Dogs in Ancient Cis-Baikal, Siberia: Temporal Trends and Relationships with Human Diet and Subsistence Practices,» PLoS ONE 8, no. 5 (2013): 63740–63763; R. Losey, V. Bazaliski, S. Garvie-Lok et al., «Canids as Persons: Early Neolithic Dog and Wolf Burials, Cis-Baikal, Siberia,» Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011): 174–189.

238

K. Maska, «Maska's Diary: The Text of Maska's Diary,» in Early Modern Humans from Predmosti Near Prerova, Czech Republic: A New Reading of Old Documentation, eds. J. Veleminskâ and J. Brüzek (Prague: Academia, 2008), 181–188 (English translation).

239

Germonpré et al., «Mandibles from Palaeolithic Dogs.»

240

V. Van Valkenburgh and F. Hertel, «Tough Times at La Brea: Tooth Breakage in Large Carnivores of the Late Pleistocene,» Science 261 (1993): 456–459.

241

R. Losey, E. Jessup, T. Nomokonova et al., «Craniomandibular Trauma and Tooth Loss in Northern Dogs and Wolves: Implications for the Archaeological Study of Dog Husbandry and Domestication,» PLoS ONE 9, no. 6 (2014): e99746, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099746.

242

R. White, «Systems of Personal Ornamentation in the Early Upper Palaeolithic: Methodological Challenges and New Observations,» in Rethinking the Human Revolution: New Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, eds. P. Mellars, K. Boyle, O. Bar-Yosef, and C. Stringer (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, 2007), 299.

243

P. Bahn, из личного общения с автором, 2011 г.

244

A. Pike-Тау, из личного общения с автором, 2011 г.

245

K. Sterelny, The Evolved Apprentice: How Evolution Made Humans Unique (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).

246

D. Morey, «Burying Key Evidence: The Social Bond between Dogs and People,» Journal of Archaeological Science 33 (2006): 167.

247

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