Воля и видение. Как те, кто приходит позже остальных, в итоге заправляют рынками [заметки]

1

Utterback, Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation.

2

«Study: Majority of 25 Leaders in 1923 Still on Top», Advertising Age, Sept. 19, 1983; p. 32. Joe S. Bain, Barriers to New Competition, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1956; Frank M. Bass and T. L. Pilon, «A Stochastic Brand Choice Framework for Econometric Modeling of Time Series Market Share Behavior», Journal of Marketing Research, 17:486–497 (1980); Gregory S. Carpenter and Kent Nakamoto, «Consumer Preference Formation and Pioneering Advantage», Journal of Marketing Research, 26:285–298 (August 1989); Marnik G. DeKimpeand Dominique M. Hanssens, «Empirical Generalizations About Market Evolution and Stationarity», Marketing Science, 14 (Number 3, Part 2 of 2):G109–G121 (1995); Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg, Repeat Buying: Facts, Theory and Data, 2d ed., New York, Oxford University Press, 1988; Andrew S. C. Ehrenberg, «New Brands and the Existing Market», Journal of the Market Research Society, 33:285–299 (1991); Philip Kotler, Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control, 9th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1997; Rajiv Lai and V. Padmanabhan, «Competitive Response and Equilibria», Marketing Science, 14(Number 3, Part 2 of 2):G101–G108 (1995).

3

Andrew S. Grove, Only the Paranoid Survive: How to Exploit the Crisis Points That Challenge Every Company and Career, Currency/Doubleday/Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, New York, 1996, p. 51.

4

Мэйн-стрит – улица в Нью-Йорке, где расположены штаб-квартиры крупнейших газет США.

5

first entrants, first movers.

6

Источники: Derek F. Abell and John S. Hammond, Strategic Market Planning: Problems and Analytical Approaches, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979; Gregory S. Carpenter and Kent Nakamoto, «Consumer Preference Formation and Pioneering Advantage», Journal of Marketing Research, 26:285–298 (1989); Alfred D. Chandler, «The Enduring Logic of Industrial Success», Harvard Business Review, 68:131–139 (March-April 1990); Robert G.

Cooper, «The Dimensions of Industrial New Product Success and Failure», Journal of Marketing, 43:93–103 (1979); George S. Day and Jonathan S. Freeman, «Burnout or Fadeout: The Risks of Early Entry into High Technology Markets», in Michael W. Lawless and Luis R. Gomez-Mejia, eds., Strategic Management in High Technology Firms, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1990, pp. 43–65; George S. Day, Allan D. Shocker, and Rajendra K. Srivastava, «Customer-Oriented Approaches to Identifying Product-Markets», Journal of Marketing, 43:8–19 (Fall 1979); R. J. Gilbert and D. M. G. Newberry, «Preemptive Patenting and the Persistence of Monopoly», American Economic Review, 72:514–526 (June 1982); A. Glazer, «The Advantages of Being First», American Economic Review, 75:473–480 (June 1985); J. L. Guasch and A. Weiss, «Adverse Selection of Markets and the Advantages of Being Late», Quarterly Journal of Economics, 453–466 (May 1980); Fahri Karakaya and Michael J. Stahl, «Barriers to Entry and Market Entry Decisions in Consumer and Industrial Goods Markets», Journal of Marketing, 53:80–91 (April 1989); W. J. Lane, «Product Differentiation in a Market with Endogenous Sequential Entry», Bell Journal of Economics, 11:237–260 (Spring 1980); Marvin B. Lieberman and David B. Montgomery, «First-Mover Advantages», Strategic Management Journal, 9:41–58 (1988); Barbara Loken and James Ward, «Alternative Approaches to Understanding the Determinants of Typicality», Journal of Consumer Research, 17:111–126 (September 1990); E. Prescott and M. Visscher, «Sequential Location among Firms with Foresight», Bell Journal of Economics, 8: 378–393 (1977); S. Ratneshwar and Allan D. Shocker, «Substitution in Use and the Role of Usage Context in Product Category Structures», Journal of Marketing Research, 28:281–295 (August 1991); F. M. Scherer, «Editorial: Post-Patent Barriers to Entry in the Pharmaceutical Industry», Journal of Health Economics, 4:83–87 (March 1985); Richard Schmalensee, «Entry Deterrence in the Ready to Eat Breakfast Cereal Industry», Bell Journal of Economics, 9:305–327 (Autumn 1978); Richard Schmalensee, «Product Differentiation Advantages of Pioneering Brands», American Economic Review, 72:349–365 (June 1982); M. Spence, «The Learning Curve and Competition», Bell Journal of Economics, 12:49–70 (1981); M. Spence, «Entry, Capacity, Investment, and Oligopolistic Pricing», Bell Journal of Economics, 8:534–544 (1977); Mita Sujan and James R. Bettman, «The Effects of Brand Positioning Strategies on Consumers' Brand and Category Perceptions: Some Insights from Schema Research», Journal of Marketing Research, 26:454–467 (November 1989).

7

Al Ries and Jack Trout, The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing, Harper Collins, New York, 1993, p. 4.

8

Gregory S. Carpenter and Kent Nakamoto, op. cit., p. 286.

9

Profit Impact of Market Strategy.

10

Источники: Frank H. Alpert, Michael A. Kamins, and John L. Graham, «An Examination of Reseller Buyer Attitudes toward Order of Brand Entry», Journal of Marketing, 56:25–37 (July 1992); R. S. Bond and D. F. Lean, «Sales, Promotion, and Product Differentiation in Two Prescription Drug Markets», U.S. Federal Trade Commission, 1977; Robert D. Buzzell and Bradley T. Gale, The PIMS Principles: Linking Strategy to Performance, Free Press, New York, 1987; Gurumurthy Kalyanaram and Glen L. Urban, «Dynamic Effects of the Order of Entry on Market Share, Trial, Penetration, and Repeat Purchases for Frequently Purchased Consumer Goods», Marketing Science, 11(3):235–251 (1992); Fahri Karakaya and Michael J. Stahl, «Barriers to Entry and Market Entry Decisions in Consumer and Industrial Goods Markets», Journal of Marketing, 53:80–91 (April 1989); Mary Lambkin, «Order of Entry and Performance in New Markets», Strategic Management Journal, 9:127–140 (Summer 1988); Mary Lambkin and George S. Day, «Evolutionary Processes in Competitive Markets: beyond the Product Life Cycle», Journal of Marketing, 53:4–20 (July 1989); W. J. Lane, «Product Differentiation in a Market with Endogenous Sequential Entry», Bell Journal of Economics, 11:237–260 (1980); Gary L. Lilien and Eunsang Yoon, «The Timing of Competitive Market Entry: An Exploratory Study of New Industrial Products», Management Science, 36:568–585 (May 1990); Michael J. Moore, William Boulding, and Ronald C. Goodstein, «Pioneering and Market Share: Is Entry Time Endogenous and Does It Matter?» Journal of Marketing Research, 28:97–104 (February 1991); Mark Parry and Frank M. Bass, «When to Lead or Follow? It Depends», Marketing Letters, 1: 187–198 (November 1990); William T. Robinson and Claes Fornell, «Sources of Market Pioneer Advantage in Consumer Goods Industries», Journal of Marketing Research, 22:305–317 (August 1985); William T. Robinson, «Sources of Market Pioneer Advantages: The Case of Industrial Goods Industries», Journal of Marketing Research, 25:87–94 (February 1988); Steven P. Schnaars, «When Entering Growth Markets, Are Pioneers Better Than Poachers?» Business Horizons, vol. 29, March-April, 1986, pp. 27–36; Mary Sullivan, «Brand Extension and Order of Entry», Marketing Science Institute Working Paper, Report No. 91–105, Marketing Science Institute, Boston, 1991; Glen L. Urban, Theresa Carter, Steven Gaskin, and Zofia Mucha, «Market Share Rewards to Pioneering Brands: An Empirical Analysis and Strategic Implications», Management Science, 32:645–659 (June 1986); Ira T. Whitten, «Brand Performance in the Cigarette Industry and the Advantages of Early Entry», U.S. Federal Trade Commission, 1979; George S. Yip, Barriers to Entry, Lexington Books, D. C. Heath, Lexington, MA, 1982.

11

Ries and Trout, op. cit., p. 2.

12

Например, см. Phillip Robinson, «HP LaserJet 4 Introduces a New World of Printing», Austin American-Statesman, Dec. 28, 1992, p. E2.

13

Stephen Roberts, «Early Laser Printer Development», http://www.printer-works.com/ Catalogs/CX–Catalog/CX-HP Laserjet-History.html and personal correspondence (1994).

14

На данный момент становится весьма популярен веб-браузер Mozilla, созданный энтузиастами на основе разработок Netscape.

15

«Will Microsoft Catch Netscape?» Computer world Apr. 29, 1996, pp. 80–81.

16

Например, см. Sandra Jones, «Net Browser Spyglass Plans 2-for-l StockSplit», Chicago Sun-Times, Nov. 29, 1995, p. 69.

17

«Mosaic Quest Closes in Redmond Original», Computer Business Review, Feb. 1, 1997.

18

Tim Berners-Lee, «Spinning the Web: A Place for Everything, and Everything on the Web?» Data Communications, Oct. 21, 1997, p. 48; Hal Berghel, «Who Won the Mosaic War?» ACM, 41 (10):13–16, (1998).

19

Психологи также описывают схожую проблему, которая возникает, когда руководителей просят описать свои личные качества. Респонденты склонны преувеличивать свои положительные черты и скрывать отрицательные. Это явление получило название синдрома положительной самооценки.

20

Procter & Gamble, Annual Report, 1977.

21

Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, CA, 1984; Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, «The First Decade of Personal Computers», in Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, eds., Insights into Personal Computers, IEEE Press, New York, 1985; Gerald E. Nelson and William R. Hewlett, «The Design and Development of a Family of Personal Computers for Engineers and Scientists», in Gupta and Toong, eds., op. cit.; Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999.

22

«Personal Computers: And the Winner Is IBM», Business Week, Oct. 3, 1983, pp. 76–95.

23

Gupta and Toong, op. cit.; Jack M. Nilles, Technology Assessment of Personal Computers: Volume 2, Personal Computer Technology, Users, and Uses, University of Southern California team sponsored by National Science Foundation, document available from National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1980, p. 2–5.

24

«Microcomputers Catch on Fast», Business Week, July 12, 1976, p. 50.

25

Grinding It Out.

26

Ray Kroc and Robert Anderson, Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonald's, Regnery, Chicago, 1977.

27

Ellen Graham, «McDonald's Pickle: He Began Fast Food but Gets No Credit», The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 15, 1991, p. Al.

28

Kroc and Anderson, op. cit., p. 9.

29

Ibid, p. 11.

30

«Out to Crack the Copying Market», Business Week, Sept. 19, 1959, p. 86.

31

longitudinal – продолжительный (англ.) – термин для обозначения социологических исследований, продолжающихся длительное время.

32

Источники в соответствии с порядком цитирования: «Howard Johnson-Highway Host», Financial World, May 20, 1964, p. 5; «Proliferating Drive-Ins», Financial World, Apr. 5, 1967, pp. 6–7; ibid.; ibid.; «Franchise to Growth», Financial World, Sept. 8, 1965, p. 6.

33

Например, см. Peter N. Golder and Gerard J. Tellis, «Pioneer Advantage: Marketing Fact or Marketing Legend», Journal of Marketing Research, 30:158–170 (May 1993); Gerard J. Tellis and Peter N. Golder, «First to Market, First to Fail? Real Causes of Enduring Market Leadership», Sloan Management Review, 37(2): 65–75 (1996).

34

Эти результаты основываются на более широкой и более свежей выборке, чем та, на которую мы ссылались в следующих публикациях: Peter N. Golder and Gerard J. Tellis, «Pioneer Advantage: Marketing Logic or Marketing Legend?» Journal of Marketing Research, 30:158–170 (May 1993); Gerard J. Tellis and Peter N. Golder, «First to Market, First to Fail? Real Causes of Enduring Market Leadership», Sloan Management Review, 37(2):65–75 (1996).

35

William T. Robinson, «Sources of Market Pioneer Advantages: The Case of Industrial Goods Industries», Journal of Marketing Research, 25:87–94 (February 1988); William T. Robinson and Claes Fornell, «Sources of Market Pioneer Advantage in Consumer Goods Industries», Journal of Marketing Research, 22:305–317 (August 1985); Glen L. Urban, Theresa Carter, Steven Gaskin, and Zofia Mucha, «Market Share Rewards to Pioneering Brands: An Empirical Analysis and Strategic Implications», Management Science, 32:645–659 (1986); Gurumurthy Kalyanaram and Glen L. Urban, «Dynamic Effects of the Order of Entry on Market Share, Trial, Penetration, and Repeat Purchases for Frequently Purchased Consumer Goods», Marketing Science, 11(3):235–251 (1992).

36

Al Ries and Jack Trout, The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing, HarperCollins, New York, 1993, p. 7.

37

Ibid., p. 5.

38

J. C. Louis and Harvey Yazijian, The Cola Wars, Everest House, New York, 1980, p. 14.

39

vision, persistence, innovation, commitment, and asset leverage.

40

Bill Gates, «They're Talking, We're Selling», The Wall Street Journal, Mar. 16, 1995, p. A22.

41

Amy Cortese, et al., «America Online 's Global Push», Business Week, April 3, 1996, p. 78; Swisher, AOL. Com, Random House, New York, 1998.

42

Masaru Ibuka, «How SONY Developed Electronics for the World Market», IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 22(1):16 (February 1975).

43

Mainframe (англ.) – 1. Большая универсальная ЭВМ – высокопроизводительный компьютер со значительным объёмом оперативной и внешней памяти, предназначенный для организации централизованных хранилищ данных большой ёмкости и выполнения интенсивных вычислительных работ. 2. Компьютер c архитектурой IBM System/360, 370, 390, zSeries.

44

Harry Tecklenburg, «A Dogged Dedication to Learning», Research Technology Management, July-August 1990, p. 14.

45

«Disposable Diapers», Internal Report and Planning Document, Johnson & Johnson Archives, New Brunswick, NJ, 1969, p. 3.

46

Другие источники: «Diapers», Consumer Reports, August 1954, pp. 160–164; «Disposable Diapers», Consumer Reports, March 1961, pp. 151–152; «For Babies Only-Chux Throw-Away Diapers», Delineator, August 1935, p. 6; «The Great Diaper Rash», Forbes, Dec. 15, 1970, p. 24; «All Those Leaky Diapers», Forbes, Feb. 15, 1975, pp. 49, 50; Lawrence G. Foster and F. Robert Kniffen, Press Release 81B11, Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, NJ, 1981; Michael E. Porter, «The Disposable Diaper Industry in 1974», Harvard Business School Case 380–175 (1980); Procter & Gamble, Annual Report, 1977; Tecklenburg, op. cit., pp. 12–15; «The Great Diaper Battle», Time, Jan. 24, 1969, pp. 69–70.

47

Источники: Brian Coe, Cameras: From Daguerreotypes to Instant Pictures, Crown Publishers, New York, 1978; «Polaroid Cameras», Consumer Reports, January 1968, pp. 44–46; Vrinda Kadiyali, «Eastman Kodak in the Photographic Film Industry: Picture Imperfect?» in David I. Rosenbaum, ed., Market Dominance: How Firms Gain, Hold, Or Lose It and the Impact on Economic Performance, Praeger, Westport, CT, 1998, pp. 89–108; Eaton S. Lothrop, Jr., A Century of Cameras, Morgan & Morgan, Dobbs Ferry, NY, 1973; Beaumont Newhall, The History of Photography, Little, Brown, Boston, 1982; J. Utterback, Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1994.

48

Nick Lyons, The Sony Vision, Crown Publishers, New York, 1976.

49

Ibid., pp. 150–151.

50

Ibid.

51

Richard S. Rosenbloom and Michael A. Cusumano, «Technological Pioneering and Competitive Advantage: The Birth of the VCR Industry», California Management Review, XXIX: 63 (Summer 1987).

52

Другие источники: «Agencies Eye Sony Home TV Recorder for Storyboard Uses», Advertising Age, June 21, 1961, p. 101; «Agency Dilemma: Kin Sue Clients», Advertising Age, July 18, 1966; «RCA Select Vision Bows; Home Sports Fans Become TV Producers in Early 70s», Advertising Age, Oct. 13, 1969, p. 57; Ampex, Annual Reports, 1969–1976, 1980; «More Gear for Home Movie Fans», BusinessWeek, July 16, 1966; «Hotter Competition in Video Recorders», Business Week, Apr. 25, 1977, p. 36; «A Flickering Picture for Video Recorders», Business Week, Aug. 21, 1978, p. 28; «Color TV», Consumer Reports, November 1961, pp. 612–613; «Home Video Tape Recorder», Consumer Reports, June 1966, p. 280; «The Betamax:

How Well Does It Work?» Consumer Reports, May, 1977, p. 291; «The Greatest Thing Since the Nickelodeon?» Forbes, July 1, 1970; James P. Forkan, «Video Cassette Man Prognosticate Unit Sales Up to 60,000 in 72», Advertising Age, Oct. 2, 1972; James P. Forkan, «Sony Begins Roll of Video Cassette Unit in N.Y. Market», Advertising Age, Nov. 3, 1975; Sumantra Ghoshal and Christopher A. Bartlett, «Matsushita Electric Industrial (MEI) in 1987», Harvard Business School Case 9–388–144 (1988); Masaru Ibuka, «How SONY Developed Electronics for the World Market», IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 22(1):15–19 (February 1975); Lawrence Lessing, «Stand By for the Cartridge TV Explosion», Fortune, June 1971, p. 80; Mark R. Levy, «The VCR Age: Home Video and Mass Communication», Sage Publications, Newberry Park, CA, 1989; Ralinda Young Lurie, «The World VCR Industry», Harvard Business School Case 9–387–098 (1987); Lyons, op. cit.; Matsushita, Annual Reports, 1971–1973, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1985; Peter Nulty, «Matsushita Takes the Lead in Video Recorders», Fortune, July 16, 1979, pp. 110–116; Richard S. Rosenbloom and Karen Freeze, «Ampex Corporation and Video Innovation», in Richard S. Rosenbloom, ed., Research on Technological Innovation, Management and Policy, Vol. 2, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1985; Richard S. Rosenbloom and Michael A. Cusumano, op. cit., pp. 51–76; Scott R. Schmedel, «Sony TV Tapes Stir U.S. Firms to Act; Separation Spreads to Canada's West», The Wall Street Journal, Mar. 28, 1977, p. 6; Sony, Annual Reports, 1973–1974, 1976–1982, 1984; «VCR Owners», The Wall Street Journal, May 1, 1986, p. B5; David B. Yoffie, «The World VCR Industry», Harvard Business School Case 9–387–098, rev. Jan. 23, 1990.

53

Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987, p. 178.

54

Read only memory – можно только читать, нельзя писать (англ.), постоянное запоминающее устройство, т. е. не подвергаемое изменениям в процессе работы.

55

Random Access Memory.

56

William Aspray, «The Intel 4004 Microprocessor: What Constitutes Invention?» IEEE Annalsof the History of Computing, 19(3):10 (1997).

57

Ibid.

58

Ibid., p. 179.

59

И Фаггин, и Хофф заявляют о своей роли в отвоевании прав на 4004 и побуждении Intel к маркетингу чипов. Правда Фаггин при это утверждает, что Хофф был против маркетинга чипов. William Aspray, op. cit., 1997.

60

«The History of Intel, 30 Years of Innovation», http://www.intel.com/press-room/ archive/backgrnd/cn71898a.htm

61

Tim Jackson, Inside Intel, Dutton/Penguin Putnam, New York, 1997, p. 73.

62

Другие источники: Robert A. Burgelman, «Fading Memories: A Process Theory of Strategic Business Exit in Dynamic Environments», Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 39, 1994, pp. 24–56; Gene Bylinsky, «How Intel Won Its Bet on Memory Chips», Fortune, November 1973, pp. 142–147, 186; Dennis Carter and Robert Burgelman, «Intel Corporation: The Evolution of an Adaptive Organization», Academy of Management Conference, Chicago, August 6–11, 1999, http://www.aom.pace.edu/meetings/1999/INTELl.htm; Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999; George W. Cogan, «Intel Corporation (A): The DRAM Decision», Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, 1989; Robert X. Cringley, Accidental Empires, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1993; Elvia Faggin, «Faggin Contributed to First Microprocessor», San Jose Mercury News, Oct. 3, 1986, p. 6B; Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, CA, 1984; Andrew S. Grove, Only the Paranoid Survive: How to Exploit the Crisis Points That Challenge Every Company and Career, Currency/Doubleday/ Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, New York, 1996; Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, «The First Decade of Personal Computers», in Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, eds., Insights into Personal Computers, IEEE Press, New York, 1985; Marcian E. Hoff, Jr., «Patents Don't Tell Whole Microprocessor Tale», San Jose Mercury News, Oct. 12, 1986, p. 10B; Gerald E. Nelson and William R. Hewlett, «The Design and Development of a Family of Personal Computers for Engineers and Scientists», in ibid.; Joel N. Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: A History of the Computer, Norton, New York, 1984; Albert Yu, Creating the Digital Future: The Secrets of Consistent Innovation at Intel, Free Press/Simon & Schuster, New York, 1998; Rob Walker, Interview with Marcian (Ted) Hoff, Oral Histories of Semiconductor Industry Pioneers, Program in History and Philosophy of Science, Department of History, Stanford University, March 3, 1995.

63

Капитализация Fairchild достигла максимума в $403 млн в 1969 году, а затем пошла на убыль.

64

Theodore Levitt, Marketing Myopia.

65

Theodore Levitt, «Marketing Myopia», Harvard Business Review, September-October, 1975, pp. 1–13.

66

Cork – пробка (англ.).

67

Рубанок представляет собой небольшой прямоугольный деревянный брусок с регулируемым лезвием, расположенным вперед и вниз. Регулируя выброс лезвия и совершая повторяющиеся движения вдоль куска дерева, плотник добивается требуемой гладкости его поверхности.

68

King C. Gillette, «Origin of the Gillette Razor», The Gillette Blade, February 1918, p. 6.

69

Ibid., p. 7.

70

William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, May 1918, p. 5.

71

Gillette, op. cit., p. 7.

72

Другие источники: Russell B. Adams, Jr., King C. Gillette: The Man and His Wonderful Shaving Device, Little, Brown, Boston, 1978; George B. Baldwin, «The Invention of the Modern Safety Razor: A Case Study of Industrial Innovation», Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, vol. 4(2), December 1951, p. 73–104; Anne Bezanson, «The Invention of the Safety Razor: Further Comments», Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, vol. 4(4), May 15, 1952, pp. 193–198; King C. Gillette, «Origin of the Gillette Razor», The Gillette Blade, March 1918, pp. 7–14; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, December 1918, pp. 5–13; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, January 1919, pp. 6–18.

73

«удовлетворительно».

74

Robert A. Sigafoos, Absolutely, Positively Overnight, St. Luke's Press, Memphis, TN, 1983, p. 31.

75

Ibid., p. 32.

76

Ibid., p. 31.

77

Winston Williams, «Overnight Delivery: The Battle Begins», The New York Times, Jan. 1, 1979, Sec. 3, p. 9.

78

Другие источники: «A New Kind of Flight Plan for Small Freight», BusinessWeek, Nov. 3, 1973, p. 3; «Why Airlines Fear the 'Federal Express Bill», BusinessWeek, Sept. 13, 1976, p. 116; Christopher H. Lovelock, Federal Express (A), «Harvard Business School Publishing», 9–577–042 Boston, 1976; Christopher H. Lovelock, «Federal Express (B)», Harvard Business School Publishing, 9–579–040 Boston, 1976; John D. Williams and Steve Frazier, «Federal Hustles to Keep Ahead of Emery in the Fast-Growing Air-Express Market», The Wall Street Journal Stories, Sept. 11, 1979; Milton Moskowitz, «The Overnight Delivery Revolution», The San Francisco Chronicle, Jan. 4, 1985, p. 35.

79

U.S. Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency.

80

National Science Foundation.

81

Gopher – суслик.

82

От франц. Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire (Европейский центр ядерных исследований).

83

Tim Berners-Lee and Mark Fischetti, Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor, HarperCollins, New York, 1999, p. 21.

84

uniform resource locators.

85

hypertext markup language.

86

hypertext transfer protocol.

87

Ibid., p. 37.

88

Ibid., p. 36.

89

Другие источники: David Bank, «Changing the Course of the Information Highway Executive, Students Team Up on Plan to Expand Internet», Los Angeles Daily News, June 6, 1994, p. B5; Tim Berners-Lee, Robert Cailliau, Ari Luotonen, Henrik Frystyk, and Nielsen Arthur Secret, «The World Wide Web», Communications of the ACM, Aug. 1, 1994, p. 76; Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, Netscape Time: The Making of the Billion-Dollar Start-Up That Took on Microsoft, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1999; Joe Clark, «Browsers Help You Forge Lynx in Internet Chain», The Toronto Star, Final, Oct. 13, 1994, p. J5; Delia De LaFuente, «The Champaign Net Work/AVhiz Kids from U. of I. Make Millions in Cyberspace», Chicago Sun-Times, Sept. 17, 1995, p. 33; Katie Hatner and Mathew Lyon, «Where Wizards Stay Up Late», Touchstone, New York, 1996; Greg R. Notess, «Comparing Web Browsers: Mosaic, Cello, Netscape, WinWeb and Internetworks Lite», Online, March/April 1995, pp. 36–40; Jian-Zhong Zhou, «The Internet, the World Wide Web, Library Web Browsers and Library Web Servers», Information Technology and Libraries, Mar. 1, 2000, p. 50.

90

King C. Gillette, «Origin of the Gillette Razor», The Gillette Blade, February1918, p. 7.

91

Russell B. Adams, Jr., King C. Gillette: The Man and His Wonderful Shaving Device, Little, Brown, Boston, 1978, p. 29.

92

Ibid., p. 30.

93

Gillette, op. cit., p. 6.

94

Gillette, op. cit., p. 7.

95

Другие источники: Adams, op. cit.; George B. Baldwin, «The Invention of the Modern Safety Razor: A Case Study of Industrial Innovation», Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, vol. 4(2), December 1951, pp. 75–104; Anne Bezanson, «The Invention of the Safety Razor: Further Comments», Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, vol. 4 (4), May 15, 1952, pp. 193–198; Gordon McKibben, Cutting Edge: Gillette's Journey to Global Leadership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston,1998; King C. Gillette, «Origin of the Gillette Razor», The Gillette Blade, March 1918, pp. 7–14; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, December 1918, pp. 5–13; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, January 1919, pp.6–18; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, May 1918, pp. 3–6.

96

Harry Tecklenburg, «A Dogged Dedication to Learning», Research Technology Management, July-August 1990, p. 13.

97

«The Great Diaper Rush», Forbes, Dec. 15, 1970, pp. 24–30.

98

Tecklenburg, op. cit., p. 12.

99

Другие источники: «Diapers», Consumer Reports, August 1954, pp. 160–164; «Disposable Diapers», Consumer Reports, March 1961, pp. 151–152; «For Babies Only-Chux Throw-Away Diapers», Delineator, August 1935, p. 6; «The Great Diaper Rash», Forbes, Dec. 15, 1970, p. 24; «All Those Leaky Diapers», Forbes, Feb. 15, 1975; Lawrence G. Foster and F. Robert Kniffen, Press Release 81B11, Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, NJ, 1981; Michael E. Porter, «The Disposable Diaper Industry in 1974», Harvard Business School Case 380–175 (1980); Procter& Gamble, Annual Report, 1977; Tecklenburg, op. cit., pp. 12–15; «The Great Diaper Battle», Time, Jan. 24, 1969, pp. 69–70.

100

Nick Lyons, The Sony Vision, Crown Publishers, New York, 1976, p. 150.

101

«Agencies Eye Sony Home TV Recorder for Storyboard Uses», Advertising Age, June 21, 1965, p. 101; «Sony Portable Tape Recorder to Bow in Ads», Advertising Age, July 18, 1966, pp. 2, 136; «RCA Select Vision Bows: Home Sports Fans Become TV Producers in Early 70s», Advertising Age, Oct. 13, 1969; Ampex, Annual Reports, 1969–1976, 1980; «More Gear for Home Movie Fans», BusinessWeek, July 16, 1966, p. 94; «Hotter Competition in Video Recorders», BusinessWeek, Apr. 25, 1977, p. 36; «A Flickering Picture for Video Recorders», BusinessWeek, Aug. 21, 1978, p. 28; «Color TV», Consumer Reports, November 1961, pp.612–613; «Home Video Tape Recorder», Consumer Reports, June 1966, p. 280; «The Betamax: How Well Does It Work», Consumer Reports, May 1977, p. 291; «The Greatest Thing Since the Nickelodeon?» Forbes, July 1, 1970; James P. Forkan, «Video Cassette Man Prognosticate Unit Sales Up to 60,000 in 72», Advertising Age, Oct. 2, 1972; James P. Forkan, «Sony Begins Roll of Video Cassette Unit in N.Y. Market», Advertising Age, Nov. 3, 1975; Sumantra Ghoshal and Christopher A. Bartlett, «Matsushita Electric Industrial (MEI) in 1987», Harvard Business School Case 9–388–144 (1988); Lawrence Lessing, «Stand By for the Cartridge TV Explosion», Fortune, June 1971, p. 80; Mark R. Levy, «The VCR Age: Home Video and Mass Communication», Sage Publications, Newberry Park, CA, 1989; Ralinda Young Lurie, «The World VCR Industry», Harvard Business School Case 9–387–098 (1987); Lyons, op. cit.; Matsushita, Annual Reports, 1971–1973, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1985; Peter Nulty, «Matsushita Takes the Lead in Video Recorders», Fortune, July 16, 1979, pp. 110–116; Richard S. Rosenbloom and Karen Freeze, «Ampex Corporation and Video Innovation», in Richard S. Rosenbloom, ed., Research on Technological Innovation, Management and Policy, Vol. 2, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1985; Richard S. Rosenbloom and Michael A. Cusumano, «Technological Pioneering and Competitive Advantage: The Birth of the VCR Industry», California Management Review, XXIX.–51–76 (Summer 1987); Scott R. Schmedel, «Sony TV Tapes Stir U.S. Firms to Act; Separation Spreads to Canada's West», The Wall Street Journal, Mar. 28, 1977, p. 6; Sony, Annual Reports, 1973–1974, 1976–1982, 1984; The Wall Street Journal, «VCR Owners», May 1, 1986, p. B5; David B. Yoffie, «The World VCR Industry», Harvard Business School, Jan. 23, 1990.

102

John H. Dessauer, My Years with Xerox: The Billions Nobody Wanted, Doubleday, Garden City, NY, 1971, p. 42.

103

Joseph C. Wilson, «The Product Nobody Wanted», Nation's Business, February 1969, p. 69.

104

John Brooks, «Xerox, Xerox, Xerox, Xerox», The New Yorker, April 1, 1967, pp. 73–74.

105

Ibid., p. 74.

106

Другие источники: Ibid., pp. 46–90; «Out to Crack the Copying Market», Business Week, Sept. 19, 1959, p. 86; «Two Men & an Idea», Forbes, Sept. 15, 1962, p. 17; Gary Jacobson and John Hillkirk, Xerox: American Samurai, Macmillan, New York, 1986; Douglas K. Smith and Robert C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future, William Morrow, New York, 1988; Wilson, op. cit., pp. 67–70.

107

Quick and Dirty Operating System – Быстрая и грязная операционная система (англ.).

108

Robert Slater, Portraits in Silicon, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987, p. 266.

109

Ibid., pp. 265, 266.

110

David Allison, «Bill Gates Interview», National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, http://www.americanhistory.si.edu/csr/comphist/gates.htm.

111

Doug Bartholomew, «Bill Gates Envisions the Enterprise», Industry Week, Dec. 12, 1996, p. 9.

112

Daniel Gross, Greatest Business Stories of All Time, Wiley, New York, 1996, p. 340.

113

Paul Carroll, Big Blues: The Unmaking of IBM, Crown Publishers, New York, 1993, p. 9.

114

«Dropping Out of Harvard Pays Off for a Computer Whiz Kid Who's Making Hard Cash from Software», People, Dec. 26, 1983, p. 37.

115

Bill Gates, «They're Talking, We're Selling», The Wall Street Journal, Mar. 16, 1995, p. A22.

116

Allison, op. cit.

117

Gross, op. cit.

118

Другие источники: Paul Carroll, «The Day Bill Gates Overthrew Big Blue», The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 16, 1993, pp. Bl, B3; Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999; Robert X. Cringley, Accidental Empires, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1993; Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/ McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, CA, 1984; Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, «The First Decade of Personal Computers», in Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, eds., Insights into Personal Computers, IEEE Press, New York, 1985; Janet Lowe, Bill Gates Speaks: Insight from the World's Greatest Entrepreneur, Wiley, New York, 1998; Joel N. Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: A History of the Computer, Norton, New York, 1984; Don E. Waldman, «The Rise and Fall of IBM», in David I. Rosenbaum, ed., «Market Dominance: How Firms Gain, Hold or Lose It and the Impact on Economic Performance», Praeger, Westport, CT, 1998, pp. 131–152.

119

Peter N. Golder and Gerard J. Tellis, «Will It Ever Fly? Modeling the Growth of Really New Consumer Durables», Marketing Science, 16(3):256–270 (1997).

120

Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «The Incumbent's Curse? Incumbency, Size and Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing, 64(3): 1–17 (July 2000); Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «Organizing for Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing Research, 35:474–487 (November 1998); Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1997; R. Foster, Innovation: The Attacker's Advantage, Summit Books, New York, 1986; James M. Utterback, Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1994.

121

Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «Organizing for Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing Research, 35:474–487 (November 1998); Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «The Incumbent's Curse? Incumbency, Size and Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing, 64(3): 1–17 (July 2000).

122

«Hat in Hand», Fortune, Oct. 31, 1930, p. 46.

123

Другие источники: Russell B. Adams, Jr., King C. Gillette: The Man and His Wonderful Shaving Device, Little, Brown, Boston, 1978; «Gaisman, Who Will Head Gillette, Is an Incorrigible Inventor», Business Week, Nov. 26, 1930, pp. 20–21; «Stirring Battle Rages for Vast Razor Blade Market», Business Week, Sept. 3, 1930, pp. 11–12; «Hat in Hand», op. cit., pp. 46–52, 147; Richard Austin Smith, «Gillette Looks Sharp Again», Fortune, June 1952, pp. 100–172; King C. Gillette, «Centralized Ideas-The Foundation of Progress», The Gillette Blade, February 1920, pp. 9–10; King C. Gillette, «Paper Read by King C. Gillette, President of the Gillette Safety Razor Company, at the Banquet of the Annual Convention, Algonquin Club, Boston, Wednesday Evening, April 13, 1921», The Gillette Blade, August 1921, pp. 3–7; Gordon McKibben, Cutting Edge: Gillette's Journey to Global Leadership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1998; William E. Nickerson, «Turning the Tables», The Gillette Blade, March 1922, pp. 3–4.

124

Lawrence Ingrassia, «Gillette Holds Its Edge by Endlessly Searching for a Better Shave», The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 10, 1992, p. 1.

125

Ibid.

126

Другие источники: Adams, op. cit.; «Gillette to Spend $4,000,000 on Stainless Blade», Advertising Age, Sept. 2, 1963, pp. 4, 46; Cal Brumley, «Stainless-Steel Razor Blades Could Be Shaver's Boon, Makers' Problem», The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 25, 1962, p. 7; «What Words in an Ad Can't Say», Business Week, May 14, 1960, pp. 45–48; «Cheek by Trowel», Business Week, Dec. 22, 1962, pp. 81–82; William M. Carley, «Battle of the Blades», The Wall Street Journal, Sept. 26, 1969, p. 38; Subrata N. Chakravarty, «We Had to Change the Playing Field», Forbes, Feb. 4, 1991, pp. 82–86; Edward T. Ewen, «Revolution on the Razor's Edge», The New York Times Magazine, Oct. 6, 1963, p. 58; «Boston Blue Bladers», Forbes, Nov. 15, 1952; «The Coming Close Shave at Gillette», Forbes, Dec. 15, 1976, p. 29; Walter Guzzardi, Jr., «Gillette Faces the Stainless-Steel Dragon», Fortune, July 1963, p. 159; «Who Wants a Stainless Reputation?» Financial Times (London), Sept. 5, 1963; Ingrassia, op. cit.; McKibben, op. cit.; «Keen Drama: A Razor Is Born», Newsweek, Oct. 11, 1971, pp. 78–82; John M. Lee, «Gillette Will Market Its New Product in Two Cities», The New York Times, Aug. 27, 1963, p. 41; «Blade-Snatching», Newsweek, Nov. 22, 1962, pp. 89–90; «How Gillette Plans to Keep Its No. 1 Spot», Printers Time, Dec. 4, 1959, pp. 65–66; Kenneth S. Smith, «Razor Blade War Growing Hotter», The New York Times, Dec. 2, 1962; Richard Austin Smith, op. cit., p. 100; «Gillette Plans to Offer Stainless Steel Razor Blade in Few Months», The Wall Street Journal, Nov. 19, 1962, p. 7; Neil Ulman, «Gillette Chair man Takes a Long View in Program to Brighten Profit Picture», The Wall Street Journal, June 28, 1977, p. 12.

127

Andrew S. Grove, Only the Paranoid Survive: How to Exploit the Crisis Points That Challenge Every Company and Career, Currency/Doubleday/Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, New York, 1996.

128

Другие источники: Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999; Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, CA, 1984; Grove, op. cit.; Tim Jackson, Inside Intel, Dutton/Penguin Putnam, New York, 1997; Albert Yu, Creating the Digital Future: The Secrets of Consistent Innovation at Intel, Free Press/Simon & Schuster, New York, 1998.

129

Томсону должно быть обидно, что первым идею разработать браузер в NCSA предложил он, а работа и вся слава достались Андреессену. Его позиция удачно изложена в Alan Deutschman, «Imposter Boy», Gentleman's Quarterly, January 1997. Однако история инноваций и рынков пестрит такими примерами, некоторые из них приведены в этой книге. Успех приходит не к тем, кто был первым, а к тем, кто обладает видением и настойчивостью при его реализации.

130

George Gilder, «Telecosm: The Coming Software Shift», Forbes ASAP, Aug. 28, 1995, p. 147.

131

Deutschman, op. cit.

132

Tim Berners-Lee, «Spinning the Web: A Place for Everything, and Every thing on the Web?» Data Communications, Oct. 21, 1997, p. 48.

133

Другие источники: Allison, op. cit.; Paul Andrews, «Web Browser Finds No Honor at Its Illinois Academic Birthplace», The Seattle Times, Oct. 9, 1997; Tim Berners-Lee and Mark Fischetti, Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor, HarperCollins, New York, 1999; Tim Berners-Lee, Robert Cailliau, Ari Luotonen, Henrik Frystyk, and Nielsen Arthur Secret, «The World Wide Web», Communications of the ACM, Aug. 1, 1994, p. 76; Hal Berghel, «Who Won the Mosaic War?» ACM, vol. 41 (10), October 1998, pp. 13–16; Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, Netscape Time: The Making of the Billion-Dollar Start-Up That Took on Microsoft, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1999; Delia De LaFuente, «The Champaign Net Work/AVhiz Kids from U. of I. Make Millions in Cyberspace», Chicago Sun-Times, Sept. 17, 1995, p. 33; Peter Elstrom and Kathy Rebello, «A Big Bet on Minibrowsers: Can Spyglass Score in the Net Appliance Market», Business Week, Oct. 28, 1996, p. 54; Katie Hafner and Mathew Lyon, «Where Wizards Stay Up Late», Touchstone, New York, 1996; Kim S. Nash, «Browsers Compete for Spotlight», Computerworld, November 1995, p. 61; Greg R. Notess, «Comparing Web Browsers: Mosaic, Cello, Netscape, Win Web and Internetworks Lite», Online, March/April 1995, pp. 36–40; Gary Samuels, «Tale of Two Interneters: Netscape Has Gotten the Headlines, but Spyglass Is Making Money», Forbes Inc., September 1995, p. 48; Jared Sandberg, «Designers of Internet's Mosaic Software Plan New Version in Bid to Set Standard», The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 13, 1994, p. B6; Jian-Zhong Zhou, «The Internet, the World Wide Web, Library Web Browsers and Library Web Servers», Information Technology and Libraries, Mar. 1, 2000, p. 50.

134

Peter N. Golder and Gerard 1. Tellis, «Will It Ever Fly? Modeling the Takeoff of Really New Consumer Durables», Marketing Science, 16(3):256–270 (1997).

135

Некоторые идеи этого раздела сформировались под влиянием: Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «The Incumbent's Curse? Incumbency, Size and Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing, 64(3): 1–17 (July 2000); Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «Organizing for Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing Research 35:474–487 (November 1998); Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1997.

136

Palo Alto Research Center.

137

Gary Jacobson and John Hillkirk, Xerox: American Samurai, Macmillan, New York, 1986, p. 214.

138

В соответствии со стратегической матрицей Boston Consulting Group, «собаки» – это компании с низкой долей рынка и низким потенциалом развития этого рынка.

139

Graphical User Interface.

140

Michael Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning: Xerox PARC and the Dawn of the Computer Age, HarperBusiness/HarperCollins, New York, 1999, p. 36.

141

George E. Pake, «Research at Xerox PARC: A Founder's Assessment», IEEE Spectrum, 22(10):56 (October 1985).

142

U.S. Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency.

143

Другие источники: «A Market Mostly for the Giants», Business Week, June 30, 1975, pp. 71–80; «Xerox's Bid to Be No. 1 in Offices», Business Week, June 22, 1981, pp. 77–78; Robert X. Cringley, Accidental Empires, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1993; «Xerox: The McColough Era», Forbes, July 1, 1969, pp. 24–32; «An Apple for Xerox?» Forbes, July 1, 1971, pp. 32–34; «Does Collision», Forbes, Aug. 15, 1972, pp. 40–42; Jacob E. Goldman, in Richard S. Rosenbloom, ed., «Innovation in Large Firms», Research in Technological Innovation, Management and Policy, vol. 2, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1985, pp. 1–10; Hiltzik, op. cit.; Jeff Johnson and Teresa L. Roberts, «The Xerox 'Star': A Retrospective», IEEE Computer, September 1989; Peter Kilborn, «Can Xerox Copy Itself?» The New York Times, Dec. 1, 1974, section 3, p. 1; Pake, op. cit.; George E. Pake, «From Research to Innovation at Xerox: A Manager's Principles and Some Examples», in R. S. Rosenbloom, ed., Research on Technological Innovation, Management and Policy, vol. 3, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1986, pp. 1–32; Tekla S. Perry and Paul Wallich, «Inside the PARC: The 'Information Architects'», IEEE Spectrum, 22(10):54–76 (October 1985); Douglas K. Smith and Robert C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future, William Morrow, New York, 1988; Gene Smith, «A Series of Promotions to the Top Post», The New York Times, May 26, 1968; Chuck Thacker, «Personal Distributed Computing: The Alto and Ethernet Hardware», in Edele Goldberg, ed., A History of Personal Workstations, ACM Press, New York, 1988, pp. 267–335.

144

Michael Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning.

145

«A Market Mostly for the Giants», op. cit.; «Xerox's Bid to Be No. 1 in Offices», op. cit.; Cringley, op. cit.; «Xerox: The McColough Era», op. cit.; «An Apple for Xerox?» op. cit.; «Does Collision», op. cit.; Goldman, op. cit.; Hiltzik, op. cit.; Johnson and Roberts, op. cit.; Kilborn, op. cit.; Pake, «Research at Xerox PARC», op. cit.; Pake, «From Research», op. cit.; Perry and Wallich, op. cit.; Smith and Alexander, op. cit.; Smith, Gene, op. cit.; Thacker, op. cit.

146

Hiltzik, op. cit., p. 131.

147

Ibid.

148

Ibid., p. 132.

149

Ibid., p. 133.

150

Ibid.

151

Ibid., p. 144.

152

Initial public offering – первая продажа акций компании широкой публике.

153

Delia De Lafuente, «The Champaign Net Work/AVhiz Kids from U. of I. Make Millions in Cyberspace», Chicago Sun-Times, Sept. 17, 1995, p. 33.

154

John Markoff, «A Free and Simple Computer Link», The New York Times, Dec. 8, 1995, p. Dl.

155

Delia De Lafuente, op. cit., 1995.

156

Ibid.

157

Другие источники: Paul Andrews, «Web Browser Finds No Honor at Its Illinois Academic Birthplace», The Seattle Times, Oct. 9, 1997; Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, Netscape Time: The Making of the Billion-Dollar Start-Up That Took on Microsoft, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1999; Alan Deutschman, «Imposter Boy», Gentleman's Quarterly, January 1997; Stan J. Liebowitz and Stephen E. Margolis, Winners, Losers and Microsoft: Competition and Antitrust in High Technology, The Independent Institute, Oakland, CA, 1999; «A Short Sleep before Exploring Version 5.0», ABIX (Australia news abstracts), Aug. 20, 1996; Hal Berghel, «Who Won the Mosaic War?» ACM, vol. 41 (10), October 1998, pp. 13–16; Michael A. Cusumano and David B. Yoffie, Competing on Internet Time: Lessons from Netscape and Its Battle with Microsoft, Free Press/Simon & Schuster, New York, 1998; Gilder George, «Telecosm: The Coming Software Shift», Forbes ASAP, Aug. 28, 1995, pp. 147 ff.; Katie Hafner and Mathew Lyon, «Where Wizards Stay Up Late», Touch stone, New York, 1996; Robert D. Hof, «From the Man Who Brought You Silicon Graphics… Can Jim Clark Score Again with User-Friendly Internet Software?» Business Week, Oct. 24, 1994, p. 90; Scott McMurray, «Diplomas and Dollars: The University of Illinois Churns Out Big-Time Software Entrepreneurs, Champaign, 111.» U.S. News & World Report, 1996, pp. 48–49; Paul Merrion, «A Tangle in School's Netscape Win», Crain Communications Inc., 09, Oct. 19, 1995; Julie Pitta, «Investors Get Caught Up in the Netscape», Los Angeles Times, 1995, pp. D3, D5; Vivian Pospisil and John Teresko, «50 R&D Stars to Watch», Industry Week, Dec. 19, 1994, p. 60; «University of Illinois and Netscape Communications Reach Agreement», PR Newswire, Dec. 21, 1994; Gary Samuels, «Tale of Two Interneters: Netscape Has Gotten the Headlines, but Spyglass Is Making Money», Forbes Inc., Sept. 1995, p. 48; Jared Sandberg, «Netscape Has Technical Whiz in Andreessen», The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 11, 1995, p. Bl.

158

«Looking Ahead», Fortune, Dec. 28, 1992, p. 32.

159

«ASAP Interview Bill Gates», Forbes ASAP, Dec. 7, 1992, pp. 63, 74.

160

David Allison, «Bill Gates Interview», National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, http://www.americanhistory.si.edu/csr/comphist/gates.htm.

161

Jeffrey Young, Greatest Technology Stories, Wiley, New York, 1998, p. 258.

162

«ASAP Interview Bill Gates», op. cit., p. 71.

163

Daniel Ichbiah and Susan Knepper, The Making of Microsoft, Prima Publishing, Rocklin, CA, 1991, p. 40.

164

Другие источники: Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999; Cringley op. cit.; Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, CA, 1984; Janet Lowe, Bill Gates Speaks: Insight from the World's Greatest Entrepreneur, Wiley, New York, 1998; Joel N. Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: A History of the Computer, Norton, New York, 1984; Randall E. Stross, The Microsoft Way, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1996.

165

Robert A. Sigafoos, Absolutely, Positively Overnight! St. Luke's Press, Memphis, TN, 1983, p. 34.

166

Ibid., p. 36.

167

Ibid., pp. 49–50.

168

Ibid., p. 62.

169

Ibid., p. 23.

170

Другие источники: «A New Kind of Flight Plan for Small Freight», BusinessWeek, Nov. 3, 1973, p. 3; «Why Airlines Fear the 'Federal Express Bill», BusinessWeek, Sept. 13, 1976, p. 116; Christopher H. Lovelock, «Federal Express (A)», Harvard Business School Publishing, 9–577–042, Boston, 1976; Christopher H. Lovelock, «Federal Express (B)», Harvard Business School Publishing, 9–579–040, Boston, 1978; Sigafoos, op. cit.; Winston Williams, The New York Times, Jan. 1, 1979, p. 1; John D. Williams and Steve Frazier, «Federal Hustles to Keep Ahead of Emery in the Fast-Growing Air-Express Market», The Wall Street Journal Stories, Sept. 11, 1979; Milton Moskowitz, «The Overnight Delivery Revolution», The San Francisco Chronicle, Jan. 4, 1985, p. 35.

171

Т.е. предназначеную для тестирования опытными пользователями с целью доработки.

172

Robert D. Hof, «From the Man Who Brought You Silicon Graphics… Can Jim Clark Score Again with User-Friendly Internet Software?» Business Week, Oct. 24, 1994, p. 90.

173

Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, Netscape Time: The Making of the Billion-Dollar Start Up That Took on Microsoft, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1999, pp. 120–121.

174

Rick Tetzeli and Shaifali Puri, «What It's Really Like to Be Marc Andreessen…», Fortune, Dec. 9, 1996, p. 136 ff.

175

Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, op. cit., p. 191.

176

Alumni – сообщество выпускников.

177

Другие источники: Paul Andrews, «Web Browser Finds No Honor at Its Illinois Academic Birthplace», The Seattle Times, Oct. 9, 1997; Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, Netscape Time: The Making of the Billion-Dollar Start-Up That Took on Microsoft, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1999, pp. 120–121; Stan J. Liebowitz and Stephen E. Margolis, Winners, Losers and Microsoft: Competition and Antitrust in High Technology, The Independent Institute, Oakland, CA, 1999; «A Short Sleep before Exploring Version 5.0», ABIX (Australia news abstracts), Aug. 20, 1996; Hal Berghel, «Who Won the Mosaic War?» ACM, vol. 41(10), October 1998, pp. 13–16; «Mosaic Quest Closes in Redmond Original», Computer Business Review, Feb. 1997, p. 1; Michael A. Cusumano and David B. Yoffie, Competing on Internet Time: Lessons from Netscape and Its Battle with Microsoft, Free Press/Simon & Schuster, New York, 1998; Katie Hafner and Mathew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, Touchstone, New York, 1996; Hof, op. cit.; Scott McMurray, «Diplomas and Dollars: The University of Illinois Churns Out Big-Time Software Entrepreneurs; Champaign, III.» U.S. News & World Report, 1996, pp. 48–49; Julie Pitta, «Investors Get Caught Up in the Netscape», Los Angeles Times, 1995, pp. D3, D5; Vivian Pospisil and John Teresko, «50 R&D Stars to Watch», Industry Week, Dec. 19, 1994, p. 60; «University of Illinois and Netscape Communications Reach Agreement», PR Newswire, Dec. 21, 1994; Gary Samuels, «Tale of Two Interneters: Netscape Has Gotten the Headlines, but Spyglass Is Making Money», Forbes Inc., September 1995, p. 48; Jared Sandberg, «Netscape Has Technical Whiz in Andreessen», The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 11, 1995, p. Bl; Jared Sandberg, «Designers of Internet's Mosaic Software Plan New Version in Bid to Set Standard», The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 13, 1994, p. B6; Gordon McKibben, Cutting Edge: Gillette's Journey to Global Leadership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1998.

178

King C. Gillette, «Origin of the Gillette Razor», The Gillette Blade, February 1918, p. 7.

179

King C. Gillette, «Origin of the Gillette Razor», The Gillette Blade, March 1918, p. 7.

180

Другие источники: Russell B. Adams, Jr., King C. Gillette: The Man and His Wonderful Shaving Device, Little, Brown, Boston, 1978; George B. Baldwin, «The Invention of the Modern Safety Razor: A Case Study of Industrial Innovation», Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 1951, pp. 71–104; King C. Gillette, «Intensive Cooperation», The Gillette Blade, August 1918, p. 5; King C. Gillette, «How the 'Gillette' Looks to Mr. Gillette after Twenty-Five Years», The Gillette Blade, September 1920, pp. 3–6; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, December 1918, pp. 5–13; William E. Nickerson, «The Development of the Gillette Safety Razor», The Gillette Blade, January 1919, pp. 6–18.

181

Michael Krantz, «Cruising inside Amazon», Time Dec. 27, 1999, pp. 68–71

182

Debra Aho Williamson, «Marketer of the Year: Amazon.com», Advertising Age, Dec. 13, 1999, pp. 1, 36.

183

Seth Schiesel, «Payoff Still Elusive in Internet Gold Rush», The New York Times, Jan. 2, 1997, p. C17.

184

Initual Public Offer (IPO) – первое публичное предложение ценных бумаг компании.

185

Jeff Bezos, Amazon.com, Annual Report, 1997.

186

Jeff Bezos, Amazon.com, Annual Report, 1998.

187

На момент приобретения компания PlanetAll имела около 1,5 млн пользователей.

188

Doreen Carvajal, «The Other Battle over Browsers: Barnes & Noble and Other Online Booksellers Are Poised to Challenge Amazon.com», The New York Times, Mar. 9, 1998, pp. Dl, D4.

189

«A Fable Concerning Ambition», The Economist, June 21, 1997, p. 69.

190

Другие источники: Amazon.com, Annual Report, 1999; Amazon.com Web site, www.amazon.com; Amazon.com, Inc., 10-K Report, 1998; Amazon.com, Inc., 10-K Report, 1999; Amazon.com, Inc., 10-K Report, 2000; Lynda M. Applegate and Meredith Collura, «Amazon.com: Exploiting the Value of Digital Business Infrastructure», Harvard Business School Case 9–800–330 (2000); Barnes and Noble Web site, www.bn.com; Borders Web site, www.borders.com; Allison Fass «Amazon Leads in Holiday Advertising», The New York Times, Dec. 13, 2000, p. 7; Pankaj Ghemawat and Bret Baird, «Leadership Online: Barnes & Noble vs. Amazon.com», Harvard Business School Case 9–798–063 (1998); John Heilemann «The Networker», The New Yorker, Aug. 11, 1997, pp. 28–36; Nick Higham, «Amazon Success Story Built on Traditional Marketing Expertise», Marketing Week, Oct. 14, 1999, p. 17; Robert D. Hof, «The Most Influential People in Electronic Business», Business Week, Sept. 27, 1999, p. 25; Carol Hymowitz «How Amazon.com Staffs a Juggernaut: It's Not about Resumes», The Wall Street Journal, May 4, 1999, p. Bl; Paul C. Judge and Heather Green, «The Name's the Thing: Dot.com's Are Spending like Mad to Establish an Identity», Business Week, Nov. 15, 1999, pp. 36–39; G. Bruce Knecht, «How Wall Street Whiz Found a Niche Selling Books on the Internet», The Wall Street Journal, May 16, 1996, pp. Al, A8; Carin-Isabel Knoop and Cate Reavis, «Selling Books Online in Mid-1998», Harvard Business School Case 9–899–038 (1998); «Delphi Service Features Books & Software from HarperCollins», Link-Up, April 1995, p. 44; «Amazon.com Posts Loss, but Less Than Expected», Los Angeles Times, Apr. 29, 1994, p. 4; Rebecca Quick, «Barnes & Noble.com to Replace Amazon.com as Top Bookseller Advertising on Yahoo!» The Wall Street Journal, Sept. 19, 2000, p. B23; Rebecca Quick, «E-Retailers Say, 'Bah Humbug! to Lavish Ads», The Wall Street Journal, Sept. 22, 2000, p. Bl; Joshua Quittner, «An Eye on the Future», Time, Dec. 27, 1999; Jeffrey F. Rayport and Dickson L. Louie, «Amazon.com (A)», Harvard Business School Case 9–897–128 (1997); Calvin Reid, «Amazon.com's Jeff Bezos», Publisher's Weekly, Jan. 5, 1998, p. 12; William A. Sahlman and Laurence E. Katz, «Amazon.com-Going Public», Harvard Business School Case 9–899–003 (1998); Robert Spector, Get Big Fast: Amazon.com, HarperBusiness, 2000; Randall E. Stross, «Why Barnes & Noble May Crush Amazon», Fortune, Sept. 29, 1997, pp. 248–250; John R. Wilke «Visiting a Bookstore by Switching on a PC», The Wall Street Journal, Jan. 11, 1993, p. Bl; Wordworth Web site, www.wordsworth.com.

191

В отдельных случаях сильные стороны производства, продаж и дистрибуции также могут быть перенесены относительно легко. Например, Coca-Cola и Anheuser-Busch умело использовали свои сильные качества, а равно и сильные брэнды, при относительно позднем, но успешном выводе, соответственно, Diet Coke и Bud Light. Однако, как мы увидим дальше, во многих других случаях те же самые активы не столь легко могут быть перенесены в новую категорию и должны рассматриваться как специализированные активы.

192

Rajesh Chandy and Gerard J. Tellis, «Organizing for Radical Product Innovation», Journal of Marketing Research, 35:474–487 (November 1998).

193

Leah Nathans Spiro and Linda Himelstein, «With the World Wide Web, Who Needs Wall Street», Business Week, Apr. 29, 1996, p. 120.

194

Beth Healy, «Battle of the Brokers Heats Up», The Boston Globe, Apr. 2, 2000, p. K7.

195

Spiro and Himelstein, op. cit.

196

Rebecca McReynolds, «Doing It the Schwab Way», US Banker, July 1998, p. 47.

197

Уменьшительное от Чарльз.

198

Erick Schonfeld, «Schwab Puts It All Online», Fortune, Dec. 7, 1998, pp. 94–96.

199

Ibid.

200

Другие источники: Ameritrade Web site, www.ameritrade.com; Stephen P. Bradley and Takia Mahmood, «Retail Financial Services in 1998: Charles Schwab», Harvard Business School Case 9–799–052 (1998); Robert A. Burgelman and Jeff Maggioncalda, «The Charles Schwab Corporation in 1996», Stanford University Graduate School of Business Case SM-35 (1996); Gaston F. Ceron, «Online Brokers Are Expected to Post Weakened Results», The Wall Street Journal, Jan. 16, 2001; Charles Schwab Web site, www.schwab.com; E*trade Web site, www.etrade.com; Saroja Girishankar, «Schwab Makes the Trade-Migrating Millions of Customers and Huge Legacy Systems to the Web Was an Eye-Opener for Precocious Charles Schwab», Internetweek, May 25, 1998, p. 30; John Gorham, «Charles Schwab Version 4.0», Forbes, Jan. 8, 2001, p. 88; Linda Himelstein, «Schwab Is Fighting on Three Fronts», Business Week, Mar. 10, 1997, p. 94.

201

Douglas K. Smith, and Robert C. Alexander, Fumbling the Future, William Morrow, New York, 1988, p. 183.

202

Ibid.

203

Smith and Alexander, op. cit.

204

В 1981-м Xerox наконец представила интегрированную офисную компьютерную систему Star. Она была создана на базе Alto и поставлялась в сетевом варианте, с графическим интерфейсом, мышкой, текстовым процессоров и лазерным принтером. Однако она появилась слишком поздно и по слишком высокой для того момента цене в $16595. В это время специальные устройства для обработки текстов стоили вполовину меньше, а недорогие персональные компьютеры стоили дешевле $3000. В очередной раз продукт Xerox проиграл в цене.

205

Michael Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning: Xerox PARC and the Dawn of the Computer Age, HarperBusiness/HarperCollins, New York, 1999, p. 359.

206

Другие источники: «A Market Mostly for the Giants», Business Week, June 30, 1975, pp. 71–80; «Why Xerox's Money Machine Slows Down», Business Week, Apr. 5, 1976, p. 60; «The New Lean, Mean Xerox», Business Week, Oct. 12, 1981, pp. 126–132; «Xerox's Bid to Be No. 1 in Offices», Business Week, June 22, 1981, pp. 77–78; Susan Chace, «Xerox Introduces an office System for Nontypists», The Wall Street Journal, Apr. 28, 1981, p. 4; Robert X. Cringley, Accidental Empires, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1993; «Two Men & an Idea», Forbes, Sept. 15, 1962, p. 17; «Xerox: The McColough Era», Forbes, July 1, 1969, pp. 24–32 (innovation and asset leverage); Jacob E. Goldman, «Innovation in Large Firms», in Richard S. Rosenbloom, ed., Research in Technological Innovation, Management and Policy, vol. 2, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1985, pp 1–10; Hiltzik, op. cit.; Michael A. Hiltzik, «Fans Celebrate Fallen Xerox Star», The Los Angeles Times, June 22, 1998; Gary Jacobson and John Hillkirk, Xerox: American Samurai, Macmillan, New York, 1986; Jeff Johnson and Teresa L. Roberts, «The Xerox 'Star': A Retrospective», IEEE Computer, September 1989; David T. Kearns and David A. Nadler, Prophets in the Dark, Harper Business, New York, 1992; Peter Kilborn, «Can Xerox Copy Itself?» The New York Times, Dec. 1, 1974; Roger Lowenstein, «History of Xerox Is a Cautionary Tale for Netscape», The Salt Lake Tribune, Aug. 18, 1995, p. B10; George E. Pake, «Research at Xerox PARC: A Founder's Assessment», IEEE Spectrum, 22, (10) 54–61 (1985); George E. Pake, «From Research to Innovation at Xerox: A Manager's Principles and Some Examples», in R. S. Rosenbloom, ed., Research on Technological Innovation, Management and Policy, vol. 3, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1986, pp. 1–32; Perry and Wallich, op. cit.; Andrew Pollack, «Xerox Stalks the Automated Office», The New York Times, May 3, 1981, section 3, p. 4; Joel Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: The Evolution of the Computer from Mainframes to Microprocessors, Norton, New York, 1996; Smith and Alexander, op. cit.; Gene Smith, «A Series of Promotions to the Top Post», The New York Times, May 26, 1968; Chuck Thacker, «Personal Distributed Computing: The Alto and Ethernet Hardware», in Edele Goldberg, ed., A History of Personal Workstations, ACM Press, New York, 1988, pp. 267–335; Bro Utall «Xerox Is Trying Too Hard», Fortune, Mar. 13, 1978, pp. 84–94; An Wang and Eugene Linden, Lesons: An Autobiography, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1986. Joseph C. Wilson, «The Product Nobody Wanted», Nation's Business, February 1969, pp. 67–70.

207

13 июня 2000 года дело было принято на рассмотрение апелляционным судом округа Колумбия, а 28 июня 2001 года суд признал решение о разукрупнении нецелесообразным, но оставил в силе обвинения в монополизме.

208

William Gates, «The Internet Tidal Wave», http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/trial/ mswitness/maritz/rnaritz_full.asp (1995).

209

Jim Clark and Owen Edwards, Netscape Time: The Making of the Billion Dollar Start-Up That Took on Microsoft, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1999, p. 59.

210

Mark Evans, «Fight to Finish: Microsoft, Netscape Step Up Race for Control of Internet Software Market», The Financial Post, Mar. 14, 1996, p. 8.

211

Charles Williford and Dan Moore, «Will Microsoft Catch Netscape?» Computerworld, vol. 29, April 1996, p. 81.

212

Gates, op. cit.

213

William Gates, http://www.microsoft.com/BillGates/speeches/12–7–95 (1995).

214

David B. Yoffie, «Microsoft Goes Online: MSN 1996», Harvard Business School Publishing case, 9–798–019, Boston, Nov. 24, 1997.

215

Robert X. Cringley, «Triumph of the Nerds», http://www.pbs.org/nerds/ transcript.html (1996).

216

Ibid.

217

Paul Carroll, Big Blues: The Unmaking of IBM, Crown Publishers, New York, 1993, p. 1.

218

«Personal Computers: And the Winner Is IBM», Business Week, Oct. 3, 1983, p. 86.

219

James Chposky and Ted Leonsis, Blue Logic: The People, Power and Politics behind the IBM Personal Computer, Facts on File, New York, 1988, pp. 62–63.

220

«Personal Computers: And the Winner Is IBM», op. cit.

221

Michael W. Miller, «IBM's Watson Offers Personal View of the Company's Recent Difficulties», The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 21, 1992, p. A3. Другие источники: «Microcomputers Catch on Fast», Business Week, July 12, 1976, p. 50; «Computer Stores», Business Week, Sept. 28, 1981, pp. 76–80; «Personal Computers: And the Winner Is IBM», op. cit., pp. 76–95; Jim Carlton, «They Could Have Been a Contender», Wired, November 1997, pp. 122–149; Jim Carlton, «Popularity of Some Computers Means Buyers Must Wait», The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 21, 1993, p. Bl; Carroll, op. cit.; Paul Carroll, «The Day Bill Gates Overthrew Big Blue», The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 16, 1993, pp. 16, Bl, B3; Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999; Cringley, op. cit.; Robert X. Cringley, Accidental Empires, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1993. David S. Evans, Albert Nichols, and Bernard Reddy, «The Rise and Fall of Leaders in Personal Computer Software», National Economic Research Associates, Cambridge, MA, Jan. 7, 1999; Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine, Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, CA, 1984; Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, in Amar Gupta and Hoormin D. Toong, eds., «The First Decade of Personal Computers», Insights into Personal Computers, IEEE Press, New York, 1985; John B. Judis, «Innovation, a Casualty at IBM», The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 17, 1991, p. A23; Dennis Kneale, «IBM Earnings Increased 23 % in 1st Quarter», The Wall Street Journal, Apr. 13, 1984, p. 1; Mitchell Lynch, «Investors Buying Nautilus for Shares in Apple Are Told to Watch for a Worm», The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 8, 1980, p. 10; Michael J. Miller and Laurence Hooper, «Signing Off», The Wall Street Journal, Jan. 27, 1993; Michael W. Miller, «IBM's Watson Offers Personal View of the Company's Recent Difficulties», The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 21, 1992, p. A3; Gerald E. Nelson and William R. Hewlett, «The Design and Development of a Family of Personal Computers for Engineers and Scientists», in Gupta and Toong, eds., op. cit.; Joel N. Shurkin, Engines of the Mind: A History of the Computer, Norton, New York, 1984; «The Third Age(A Survey of the Computer Industry)», The Economist, Sept. 17, 1994, p. C3; Don E. Waldman, «The Rise and Fall of IBM», in David I. Rosenbaum, ed., Market Dominance: How Firms Gain, Hold or Lose It and the Impact on Economic Performance, Praeger, Westport, CT, 1998, pp. 131–152; Kathleen K. Wiegner, «Tomorrow Has Arrived», Forbes, Feb. 15, 1982, pp. 111–119; Grant F. Winthrop, «Whom the Apples Fell On», Fortune, Jan. 12, 1981, p. 68.

222

Scott Ward, Larry Light, and Jonathan Goldstine, «What High-Tech Managers Need to Know about Brands», Harvard Business Review, July-August 1999, pp.85–95.

223

Например, Gregory S. Carpenter and Kent Nakamoto, «Consumer Preference Formation and Pioneering Advantage», Journal of Marketing Research, 26: 285–298 (August 1989); Philip Kotler, Marketing Management, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2000.

224

George Burton Hotchkiss and Richard B. Franken, The Leadership of Advertised Brands, Doubleday, Page & Company, Garden City, NY, 1923.

225

Более подробно см. Peter N. Golder, «Historical Method in Marketing Research with New Evidence on Long-Term Market Share Stability», Journal of Marketing Research, 37:156–172 (May 2000).

226

Когда мы собирали данные для этого конкретного исследования, определение долей рынка основывалось на результатах продаж за 1997 год.

227

Ellen Graham, «McDonald's Pickle: He Began Fast Food but Gets No Credit», The Wall Street Journal, Aug. 15, 1991, p. A5.

228

Barbara Tuchman, Practicing History, Knopf, New York, 1981, p. 9.

229

Дискуссия об историческом методе базируется на: Peter N. Golder, «Historical Method in Marketing Research with New Evidence on Long-Term Market Share Stability», Journal of Marketing Research, 37:156–172 (May 2000).

Эта работа основывается на следующих источниках:

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