Искусственный интеллект [заметки]

1

Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture.

2

Brand, “We Owe It All to the Hippies.”

3

Science Technology Engineering And Math (STEM) – аббревиатура, обозначающая технические специальности, в которых традиционно наблюдался гендерный перевес. – Прим. пер.

4

В России выходит на канале НТВ под названием «Своя игра». – Прим. ред.

5

Dreyfus, What Computers Still Can’t Do.

6

Керниган Б. Ритчи Д. Язык программирования С. – М.: Вильямс, 2009.

7

Weizenbaum, “Eliza.”

8

Cerulo, Never Saw It Coming.

9

Miner et al., “Smartphone-Based Conversational Agents and Responses to Questions about Mental Health, Interpersonal Violence, and Physical Health.”

10

Bonnington, “Tacocopter.”

11

Silver et al., “Mastering the Game of Go with Deep Neural Networks and Tree Search,” 484.

12

Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.”

13

Searle, “Artificial Intelligence and the Chinese Room.”

14

Cox, Bloch, and Carter, “All of Inflation’s Little Parts.”

15

Hart, Robbins, and Teegardin, “How the Doctors & Sex Abuse Project Came About.”

16

Kestin and Maines, “Cops Hitting the Brakes – New Data Show Excessive Speeding Dropped 84 % since Investigation.”

17

Kunerth, “Any Way You Look at It, Florida Is the State of Weird.”

18

Pierson et al., “A Large-Scale Analysis of Racial Disparities in Police Stops across the United States.”

19

Angwin et al., “Machine Bias.”

20

Meyer, Precision Journalism, 14.

21

Lewis, “Journalism in an Era of Big Data”; Diakopoulos, “Accountability in Algorithmic Decision Making”; Houston, Computer-Assisted Reporting; Houston and Investigative Reporters and Editors, Inc., The Investigative Reporter’s Handbook.

22

Holovaty, “A Fundamental Way Newspaper Sites Need to Change.”

23

Waite, “Announcing Politifact.”

24

Holovaty, “In Memory of Chicagocrime.org.”

25

Daniel and Flew, “The Guardian Reportage of the UK MP Expenses Scandal”; Flew et al., “The Promise of Computational Journalism.”

26

Valentino-DeVries, Singer-Vine, and Soltani, “Websites Vary Prices, Deals Based on Users’ Information.”

27

Diakopoulos, “Algorithmic Accountability.”

28

Anderson, “Towards a Sociology of Computational and Algorithmic Journalism”; Schudson, “Four Approaches to the Sociology of News.”

29

Usher, Interactive Journalism.

30

Royal, “The Journalist as Programmer.”

31

Hamilton, Democracy’s Detectives.

32

Arthur, “Analysing Data Is the Future for Journalists, Says Tim Berners-Lee.”

33

Silver, The Signal and the Noise.

34

Министр образования США

35

Pennsylvania System of School Assessment (PSSA). – Прим. пер.

36

Lane, “What the AP U. S. History Fight in Colorado Is Really About.”

37

Broussard, “Why E-books Are Banned in My Digital Journalism Class”; Wästlund et al., “Effects of VDT and Paper Presentation on Consumption and Production of Information”; Noyes and Garland, “VDT versus Paper-Based Text”; Morineau et al., “The Emergence of the Contextual Role of the E-book in Cognitive Processes through an Ecological and Functional Analysis”; Noyes and Garland, “Computervs. Paper-Based Tasks”; Keim, “Why the Smart Reading Device of the Future May Be… Paper.”

38

Ames, “Translating Magic.”

39

Kraemer, Dedrick, and Sharma, “One Laptop per Child”; Purington, “One Laptop per Child.”

40

Broussard, “Why Poor Schools Can’t Win at Standardized Testing.”

41

School District of Philadelphia, “Budget Adoption Fiscal Year 2016–2017.”

42

Christian and Cabell, Initial Investigation into the Psychoacoustic Properties of Small Unmanned Aerial System Noise.

43

Martinez, “‘Drone Slayer’ Claims Victory in Court.”

44

Vincent, “Twitter Taught Microsoft’s AI Chatbot to Be a Racist Asshole in Less than a Day.”

45

Plautz, “Hitchhiking Robot Decapitated in Philadelphia.”

46

Unless otherwise indicated, quotes from Minsky in this section are taken from Minsky, “Web of Stories Interview.”

47

Brand, The Media Lab; Levy, Hackers.

48

Dormehl, “Why John Sculley Doesn’t Wear an Apple Watch (and Regrets Booting Steve Jobs).”

49

Lewis, “Rise of the Fembots”; LaFrance, “Why Do So Many Digital Assistants Have Feminine Names?”

50

Автор ссылается на «объединителей», социальных акторов, упомянутых Малкольмом Гладуэллом в книге «Переломный момент». – Прим. пер.

51

Long Now Foundation – долгосрочная культурная инициатива, противопоставляющая себя «быстрой и дешевой» культуре и стоящая на идеях развития долгосрочной ответственности. – Прим. пер.

52

Hillis, “Radioactive Skeleton in Marvin Minsky’s Closet.”

53

Alba, “Chicago Uber Driver Charged with Sexual Abuse of Passenger”; Fowler, “Reflecting on One Very, Very Strange Year at Uber”; Isaac, “How Uber Deceives the Authorities Worldwide.”

54

Copeland, “Summing Up Alan Turing.”

55

“The Leibniz Step Reckoner and Curta Calculators – CHM Revolution.”

56

Kroeger, The Suffragents; Shetterly, Hidden Figures; Grier, When Computers Were Human.

57

Wolfram, “Farewell, Marvin Minsky (1927–2016).”

58

Alcor Life Extension Foundation, “Official Alcor Statement Concerning Marvin Minsky.”

59

Brand, “We Are As Gods.”

60

Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture.

61

Brand, “We Are As Gods.”

62

Hafner, The Well.

63

От названия сабреддита r/TheRedPill, посвященного «правам мужчин». – Прим. науч. ред.

64

Borsook, Cyberselfish, 15.

65

Barlow, “A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace.”

66

Thiel, “The Education of a Libertarian.”

67

Taplin, Move Fast and Break Things.

68

Slovic, The Perception of Risk; Slovic and Slovic, Numbers and Nerves; Kahan et al., “Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition.”

69

Leslie et al., “Expectations of Brilliance Underlie Gender Distributions across Academic Disciplines,” 262.

70

Bench et al., “Gender Gaps in Overestimation of Math Performance,” 158. Also См. Feltman, “Men (on the Internet) Don’t Believe Sexism Is a Problem in Science, Even When They См. Evidence”; Williams, “The 5 Biases Pushing Women Out of STEM”; Turban, Freeman, and Waber, “A Study Used Sensors to Show That Men and Women Are Treated Differently at Work”; Moss-Racusin, Molenda, and Cramer, “Can Evidence Impact Attitudes?”; Cohoon, Wu, and Chao, “Sexism: Toxic to Women’s Persistence in CSE Doctoral Programs.”

71

Natanson, “A Sort of Everyday Struggle.”

72

См. https://xkcd.com/1425, and note that the hidden text on the online version of the comic refers to a famous anecdote about Marvin Minsky.

73

Solon, “Roomba Creator Responds to Reports of ‘Poopocalypse.’”

74

И то и другое на английском именуется cells. – Прим. ред.

75

Busch, “A Dozen Ways to Get Lost in Translation”; van Dalen, “The Algorithms behind the Headlines”; ACM Computing Curricula Task Force, Computer Science Curricula 2013.

76

IEEE Spectrum, “Tech Luminaries Address Singularity.”

77

Gomes, “Facebook AI Director Yann LeCun on His Quest to Unleash Deep Learning and Make Machines Smarter.”

78

Пример актуален для США. – Прим. ред.

79

“machine, n.”

80

Butterfield and Ngondi, A Dictionary of Computer Science.

81

Pedregosa et al., “Scikit-Learn: Machine Learning in Python.”

82

Mitchell, “The Discipline of Machine Learning.”

83

Neville-Neil, “The Chess Player Who Couldn’t Pass the Salt.”

84

Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence.

85

О’Нил К. Убийственные большие данные. – М.: АСТ, 2018.

86

O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction.

87

Grazian, Mix It Up.

88

Blow, Fire Shut Up in My Bones.

89

Tversky and Kahneman, “Availability.” См. also Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow; Slovic, The Perception of Risk; Slovic and Slovic, Numbers and Nerves; Fischhoff and Kadvany, Risk.

90

См. https://www.datacamp.com for more on the Titanic data science tutorial. I’ve omitted some parts of the tutorial for readability.

91

Quach, “Facebook Pulls Plug on Language-Inventing Chatbots?”

92

Angwin et al. “A World Apart.”

93

Valentino-DeVries, Singer-Vine, and Soltani, “Websites Vary Prices, Deals Based on Users’ Information.”

94

Hannak et al., “Measuring Price Discrimination and Steering on E-Commerce Web Sites.”

95

Heffernan, “Amazon’s Prime Suspect.”

96

Angwin, Mattu, and Larson, “Test Prep Is More Expensive – for Asian Students.”

97

Brewster and Lynn, “Black-White Earnings Gap among Restaurant Servers.”

98

Sharkey, “The Destructive Legacy of Housing Segregation.”

99

Pasquale, The Black Box Society.

100

Lord, A Night to Remember; Brown, “Chronology – Sinking of S. S. TITANIC.”

101

Halevy, Norvig, and Pereira, “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Data,” 8.

102

“Robot Car ‘Stanley’ designed by Stanford Racing Team.”

103

“Karel the Robot.”

104

Pomerleau, “ALVINN, an Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network”; Hawkins, “Meet ALVINN, the Self-Driving Car from 1989.”

105

Mundy, “Why Is Silicon Valley So Awful to Women?”

106

Oremus, “Terrifyingly Convenient.”

107

DARPA Public Affairs, “Toward Machines That Improve with Experience.”

108

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and US Department of Transportation, “Federal Automated Vehicles Policy.”

109

См.: Yoshida, “Nvidia Outpaces Intel in Robo-Car Race.” Yoshida may be referring to a different standards document, in which Level 2 is equivalent to the Level 3 quoted here. Again: language and standards matter a great deal in engineering.

110

Liu et al., “CAAD: Computer Architecture for Autonomous Driving”; Thrun, “Making Cars Drive Themselves”; Thrun, “Winning the DARPA Grand Challenge.”

111

Скетч можно найти на YouTube, набрав в поиске More Cowbell – SNL. – Прим. ред.

112

См.: Singh, “Critical Reasons for Crashes Investigated in the National Motor Vehicle Crash Causation Survey.” Если вам интересна тема, обратите внимание на работы Best, Damned Lies and Statistics. Статистика – это один из способов интерпретации социальных проблем, и нередко она помогает выявить проблемы. Так, например, Mothers Against Drunk Driving при помощи статистики способствовали трансформации норм относительно вождения в нетрезвом виде. Сегодня большинство согласно с тем, что не стоит садиться нетрезвыми за руль. Однако утверждение, что люди, в отличие от машин, не должны водить, – это совсем другая истории.

113

Chafkin, “Udacity’s Sebastian Thrun, Godfather of Free Online Education, Changes Course.”

114

Marantz, “How ‘Silicon Valley’ Nails Silicon Valley.”

115

Dougherty, “Google Photos Mistakenly Labels Black People ‘Gorillas.’”

116

Evtimov et al., “Robust Physical-World Attacks on Deep Learning Models.”

117

Hill, “Jamming GPS Signals Is Illegal, Dangerous, Cheap, and Easy.”

118

См. Harris, “God Is a Bot, and Anthony Levandowski Is His Messenger”; Marshall, “Uber Fired Its Robocar Guru, But Its Legal Fight with Google Goes On.” Harris also writes that Levandowski founded a religious organization, Way of the Future, in an attempt to “develop and promote the realization of a Godhead based on Artificial Intelligence.”

119

Vlasic and Boudette, “Self-Driving Tesla Was Involved in Fatal Crash, U. S. Says.”

120

Tesla, Inc., “A Tragic Loss.”

121

Lowy and Krisher, “Tesla Driver Killed in Crash While Using Car’s ‘Autopilot.’”

122

Liu et al., “CAAD: Computer Architecture for Autonomous Driving”

123

Французский ресторан морской кухни на Манхэттене, имеет три звезды Мишлен. – Прим. ред.

124

Sorrel, “Self-Driving Mercedes Will Be Programmed to Sacrifice Pedestrians to Save the Driver.”

125

Taylor, “Self-Driving Mercedes-Benzes Will Prioritize Occupant Safety over Pedestrians.”

126

Been, “Jaron Lanier Wants to Build a New Middle Class on Micropayments.”

127

Pickrell and Li, “Driver Electronic Device Use in 2015.”

128

Dadich, “Barack Obama Talks AI, Robo Cars, and the Future of the World.”

129

Newman, “What Is an A-Hed?”

130

US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Newspaper Publishers Lose over Half Their Employment from January 2001 to September 2016.”

131

Жители Иллинойса называю так свой штат, поскольку именно оттуда началась политическая карьера А. Линкольна. – Прим. ред.

132

Одно из уважительных прозвищ А. Линкольна. – Прим. ред.

133

Pasquale, The Black Box Society; Gray, Bounegru, and Chambers, The Data Journalism Handbook; Diakopoulos, “Algorithmic Accountability”; Diakopoulos, “Accountability in Algorithmic Decision Making”; boyd and Crawford, “Critical Questions for Big Data”; Hamilton and Turner, “Accountability through Algorithm”; Cohen, Hamilton, and Turner, “Computational Journalism”; Houston, Computer-Assisted Reporting.

134

Angwin et al., “Machine Bias.”

135

California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, “Fact Sheet.”

136

Angwin and Larson, “Bias in Criminal Risk Scores Is Mathematically Inevitable, Researchers Say”; Kleinberg, Mullainathan, and Raghavan, “Inherent Trade-Offs in the Fair Determination of Risk Scores.”

137

Bogost, “Why Nothing Works Anymore”; Brown and Duguid, The Social Life of Information.

138

Hempel, “Melinda Gates Has a New Mission.”

139

Somerville and May, “Use of Illicit Drugs Becomes Part of Silicon Valley’s Work Culture.”

140

Alexander and West, The New Jim Crow.

141

Hern, “Silk Road Successor DarkMarket Rebrands as OpenBazaar.”

142

Brown, “Nearly a Third of Millennials Have Used Venmo to Pay for Drugs.”

143

Newman, “Who’s Buying Drugs, Sex, and Booze on Venmo? This Site Will Tell You.”

144

Кристенсен К. Дилемма инноватора. – М.: Альпина Паблишер, 2019.

145

“Jeremy Corbyn, Entrepreneur.”

146

Terwiesch and Xu, “Innovation Contests, Open Innovation, and Multiagent Problem Solving.”

147

В России выходит под названием «Последний герой». – Прим. ред.

148

От англ. слов bus – автобус и entrepreneur – предприниматель. – Прим. ред.

149

Командный вид спорта с летающим диском. – Прим. ред.

150

От англ. vapor – туман, ware – продукт. – Прим. ред.

151

Morais, “The Unfunniest Joke in Technology.”

152

Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.

153

Йоттабайт равен триллиону терабайтов. – Прим. ред.

154

Проприетарный софт – программное обеспечение, являющееся частной собственностью. Также известен как коммерческий софт. В данном случае это означает, что команде удалось договориться о финансовой поддержке со стороны и фактически создать рабочий проект, который они представили реальному инвестору, а не судьям в рамках конкурса, т. е. им удалось создать настоящую компанию и продать проект. – Прим. пер.

155

Seife, Proofiness; Kovach and Rosenstiel, Blur.

156

Broussard, “Artificial Intelligence for Investigative Reporting.”

157

Организации, чья финансовая деятельность регулируется соответственно 527-м и 501-м параграфами Налогового кодекса. – Прим. ред.

158

Mayer, Dark Money; Smith and Powell, Dark Money, Super PACs, and the 2012 Election.

159

Bump, “Donald Trump’s Campaign Has Spent More on Hats than on Polling.”

160

Donn, “Eric Trump Foundation Flouts Charity Standards.”

161

Sheivachman, “Clinton vs. Trump.”

162

Fletcher and Zuckerman, “Hedge Funds Battle Losses.”

163

Russell and Vinsel, “Let’s Get Excited about Maintenance!”

164

Crawford, “Artificial Intelligence’s White Guy Problem”; Crawford, “Artificial Intelligence – With Very Real Biases”; Campolo et al., “AI Now 2017 Report”; boyd and Crawford, “Critical Questions for Big Data.”

165

boyd, Keller, and Tijerina, “Supporting Ethical Data Research”; Zook et al., “Ten Simple Rules for Responsible Big Data Research”; Elish and Hwang, “Praise the Machine! Punish the Human! The Contradictory History of Accountability in Automated Aviation.”

166

Chen, “The Laborers Who Keep Dick Pics and Beheadings Out of Your Facebook Feed.”

167

Fairness and Transparency in Machine Learning, “Principles for Accountable Algorithms and a Social Impact Statement for Algorithms.”

168

Data Privacy Lab, “Mission Statement”; Sweeney, “Foundations of Privacy Protection from a Computer Science Perspective.”

169

Pilhofer, “A Note to Users of DocumentCloud.”

170

Дает возможность студентам попробовать себя в роли конгрессменов США. – Прим. ред.