Великое вырождение. Как разрушаются институты и гибнут государства [заметки]

Примечания

1

Учитывая паритет покупательной способности, примем тот факт, что неторгуемые товары и услуги гораздо дешевле в Китае, чем в США. – Здесь и далее, если не указано иное, – прим. автора.

2

Согласно закону Мура (сформулирован в 1965 году одним из основателей “Интел” Гордоном Э. Муром), количество транзисторов в кристалле микропроцессора удваивается каждые два года.

3

Здесь и далее цит. по: Смит А. Исследование о природе и причинах богатства народов. М.: Соцэкгиз, 1962. – Прим. перев.

4

“1066 и все такое” У.К. Селлара и Р.Дж. Йетмана – пародийная история Англии с нормандского завоевания до начала Первой мировой войны. – Прим. ред.

5

Перевод А. Субботина. – Прим. перев.

6

Я не рассматриваю здесь громадный долг домохозяйств, а также финансовых и нефинансовых корпораций, но если сложить частный и государственный долг, то бремя окажется беспрецедентным: в Японии – 512 % ВВП, в Великобритании – 507 %, во Франции – 346 %, в Италии – 314 %, в США – 279 %, а в Германии – 278 %.

7

Перевод С. Векслер под ред. А. Бабича. – Прим. перев.

8

Через несколько месяцев после военного переворота в Мали в 2012 году я встретил в Бамако американца-антрополога и поразился его замечанию: “Молодежь лишь начинает догадываться, что политический класс лишает ее будущего”. Осознание этого факта станет главным фактором, влияющим на американскую политику.

9

Они подчинялись – в США – кроме прочего, положениям законов “О надзоре за международным кредитованием” (1983), “О реформировании, оздоровлении и контроле над финансовыми учреждениями” (1989) и “О совершенствовании деятельности Федеральной корпорации по страхованию банковских депозитов” (1991).

10

Перевод С. Соболь. – Прим. перев.

11

Перевод Ф. Сологуба. – Прим. перев.

12

Государства, усложняющие новым компаниям выход на рынок, теряют в качестве продукции. Здесь гораздо выше уровень коррупции, а объем черного и серого рынков больше.

13

Перевод М. Клягиной-Кондратьевой. – Прим. перев.

14

В будущей работе о “духе общего права” мы с Чарльзом Беаром подробно проанализируем ход его эволюции исходя из постепенного изменения значения правовых концепций (вместо функционалистского, ограниченного сегодняшним днем подхода, свойственного Шлейферу и его коллегам).

15

Присутствие в списке Ирана служит напоминанием, что пользоваться такими материалами следует с осторожностью.

16

Перевод М. Лозинского. – Прим. перев.

17

Ланселот Браун (1716–1783) – английский ландшафтный архитектор. Прозван современниками “Капабилити” за то, что убеждал состоятельных клиентов в огромном потенциале (great capabilities) их угодий для воплощения собственных представлений о прекрасном. – Прим. перев.

18

Перевод И. Малаховой. – Прим. перев.

19

Перевод В. Олейника. – Прим. перев.

20

Перевод В. Олейника. – Прим. перев.

21

Перевод Б. Ворожцова. – Прим. перев.

22

Перевод В. Олейника. – Прим. перев.

23

Строго говоря, колледж Св. Магдалины входит в состав университета с государственным финансированием, на независимость которого правительство время от времени покушается. При этом указанный колледж сохраняет самоуправление и собственный эндаумент.

24

Уэст пишет: “Одна из неприятных сторон неограниченного роста, скорость которого увеличивается более чем экспоненциально, – та, что неограниченный рост ведет к коллапсу… Это обосновывается математически, с помощью понятия сингулярности (finite time singularity). Вы попадаете в точку сингулярности… и система… схлопывается”.

25

Выражение Рэя Далио, управляющего американским хеджевым фондом “Бриджуотер”, который исключительно успешно действовал во время финансового кризиса.

Комментарии

1

Fukuyama, Francis The End of History and the Last Man // National Interest, 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18.

2

McKinsey Global Institute Urban World: Cities and the Rise of the Consuming Class. June 2012.

3

McKinsey Global Institute Debt and Deleveraging: The Global Credit Bubble and its Economic Consequences. January 2010.

4

Berezin, Peter The Weak U.S. Labor Market: Mainly a Cyclical Problem… for Now // Bank Credit Analyst, 64, 1 (July 2012): 40.

5

См. например: Sachs, Jeffrey The Price of Civilization: Reawakening American Virtue and Prosperity. New York, 2011.

6

См. например: International Monetary Fund Navigating the Fiscal Challenges Ahead // Fiscal Monitor, 14 May 2010.

7

Atkinson, Anthony B., Piketty, Thomas, and Emmanuel Saez Top Incomes in the Long Run of History // Journal of Economic Literature, 49, 1 (2011): 3–71.

8

Credit Suisse Global Wealth Databook. October 2010. Tables 3–1, 3–3, 3–4.

9

См.: Baz, Jamil Current Crisis Merely a Warm up Act // Financial Times, 11 July 2012.

10

Ferguson, Niall Too Big to Live: Why We Must Stamp Out State Monopoly Capitalism // Adam Smith Review, 6 (2011): 327–340.

11

Enriquez, Juan Medicine’s Missing Measure // Atlantic (May 2012). См.: http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/05/medicines-missing-measure/257901/.

12

Stossel, John I Tried to Open a Lemonade Stand // Townhall, 24 February 2012.

13

Hertz, Tom Rags, Riches, and Race: Intergenerational Income Mobility of Black and White Families in the United States / In: Bowles, Samuel, Gintis, Herbert, and Melissa Osborne, eds. Unequal Chances: Family Background and Economic Success. New York, 2005. Table 10.

14

Murray, Charles Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960–2010. New York, 2012.

15

Smith, Adam The Wealth of Nations (1776). Book I, ch. 8.

16

Ibid. Ch. 9.

17

См.: http://blog.lgiu.org.uk/2011/09/on-libya-andinstitutions/. Благодарю Лорда Маллох-Брауна за то, что обратил внимание на граффити в программе “Сегодня” на BBC Radio 4.

18

См.: Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. New York, 2012.

19

Taverner, Richard The Garden of Wysdome Conteynynge Pleasaunt Floures, that is to say, Propre and Quycke Sayinges of Princes, Philosophers and other Sortes of Me[n]. Drawe[n] Forth of Good Aucthours. London, 1539, p. 6.

20

Данные из: Maddison, Angus Statistics on World Population, GDP and Per Capita GDP, 1—2008 AD. См.: http://www.ggdc.net/MADDISON/Historical_Statistics/ vertical-file_02—2010.xls.

21

Данные Всемирного банка. См.: http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-developmentindicators.

22

Diamond, Jared Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years. London, 1998. [Рус. пер.: Даймонд Д. Ружья, микробы и сталь: судьбы человеческих обществ. М.: АСТ: Corpus, 2010.] Также см.: Morris, Ian Why the West Rules – For Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal About the Future. New York, 2010.

23

Pomeranz, Kenneth The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton, 2000.

24

North, Douglass C., Wallis, John Joseph, and Barry R. Weingast Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History. Cambridge, 2009.

25

Fukuyama, Francis The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution. New York, 2011.

26

Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. New York, 2012. P. 4.

27

Ibid. Pp. 7–9.

28

Collier, Paul The Bottom Billion. Oxford, 2007. Pp. 50, 56; Collier, Paul The Plundered Planet: How to Reconcile Prosperity with Nature. London, 2010. Pp. 47f., 58.

29

Soto, Hernando de The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. New York, 2000.

30

Soto, Hernando de The Free Market Secret of the Arab Revolutions // Financial Times, 8 November 2011.

31

Clark, J. C.D. British America: What If There Had Been No American Revolution? / In: Niall Ferguson, ed. Virtual History: Alternatives and Counterfactuals. London, 1993. Pp. 125–175.

32

Например см.: Jones, J.R. The Revolution in Context / In: J.R. Jones, ed. Liberty Secured? Britain before and after 1688. Stanford, 1992. P. 12.

33

Pincus, Stephen C.A., and James A. Robinson What Really Happened during the Glorious Revolution? // National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 17206 (July 2011).

34

Greif, Avner Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade / In: Ménard, C., and M. Shirley, eds. Handbook of New Institutional Economics. Dordrecht, 2005. Pp. 727–786.

35

Kuran, Timur The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton, 2010.

36

OECD PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do: Student Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science. Paris, 2010. P. 15. См.: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/10/61/48852548.pdf.

37

Ferguson, Niall Civilization: The West and the Rest. London/New York, 2011. [Рус. пер.: Фергюсон Ниал. Цивилизация: чем Запад отличается от остального мира. М.: АСТ: Corpus, 2014.]

38

Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge, 2009.

39

North, Douglass C., and Barry R. Weingast Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England // Journal of Economic History, 44, 4 (1989): 803–832.

40

Kotlikoff, Laurence J., and Scott Burns The Clash of Generations: Saving Ourselves, our Kids, and our Economy. Cambridge, MA, 2012. P. 33.

41

Ibid. Pp. 30f.

42

Cardarelli, Roberto, Sefton, James, and Laurence J. Kotlikoff Generational Accounting in the UK // Economic Journal, 110, 467, Features (November 2000): F547–F574.

43

Reinhart, Carmen M., and Kenneth S. Rogoff Growth in a Time of Debt. NBER Working Paper 15639 (January 2010).

44

См.: Krugman, Paul Reagan Did It // New York Times, 31 May 2009.

45

Krugman, Paul Financial Reform 101 // New York Times, 1 April 2010. Также см.: Krugman, Paul Punks and Plutocrats // New York Times, 28 March 2010.

46

Krugman, Paul Making Banking Boring // New York Times, 9 April 2009.

47

Krugman, Paul Egos and Immorality // New York Times, 24 May 2012. Также см.: Krugman, Paul Dimon’s Déjà Vu Debacle // New York Times, 20 May 2012.

48

Johnson, Simon, and James Kwak Thirteen Bankers: The Wall Street Takeover and the Next Financial Meltdown. New York, 2010.

49

Posner, Richard A. The Crisis of Capitalist Democracy. Cambridge, MA, 2010.

50

Wall Street Legend Sandy Weill: Break Up the Big Banks // CNBC.com, 25 July 2012.

51

Kynaston, David The City of London, vol. IV: A Club No More, 1945–2000. London, 2001.

52

Capie, Forest The Bank of England: 1950s to 1979. Cambridge, 2010. Pp. 589ff.

53

См.: Dimsdale, N.H. British Monetary Policy since 1945 / In: Crafts, N. F. R., and N.W.C. Woodward, eds. The British Economy since 1945. Oxford, 1991. P. 108.

54

Ferguson, Niall Regulation and Deregulation in a Time of Stagflation: Siegmund Warburg and the City of London in the 1970s. Paper presented at the European Association for Banking History, Brussels, 2010.

55

См. например: Lord Turner After the Crises: Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Financial Liberalisation. Fourteenth C.D. Deshmukh Memorial Lecture, Mumbai, 15 February 2010.

56

Lord Turner Debt and Deleveraging: Long Term and Short Term Challenges // Centre for Financial Studies, 21 November 2011.

57

Rockoff, Hugh Upon Daedalian Wings of Paper Money: Adam Smith and the Crisis of 1772 // NBER Working Paper 15594 (December 2009).

58

Pressler, Jessica Look Who’s Back // New York Magazine, 8 April 2012. См.: http://nymag.com/news/business/themoney/john-mack-2012—4/index1.html.

59

Wallison, Peter Dodd – Frank’s Liquidation Plan is Worse than Bankruptcy // Bloomberg, 11 June 2012.

60

Masters, Brooke Big Banks Need Extra $

566bn, says Fitch // Financial Times, 17 May 2012.

61

Darwin, Frances, ed. The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, including an Autobiographical Chapter, vol. I. London, 1887, p. 83.

62

Bagehot, Walter Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market. London, 1896 [1873], p. 11.

63

Ferguson, Niall An Evolutionary Approach to Financial History // Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, 74 (2010), pp. 449–454.

64

Weber, Robert F. Structural Regulation as Antidote to Complexity Capture // American Business Law Journal, 49, 3 (2012).

65

См.: Buchanan, Mark Ubiquity: The Science of History… Or Why the World is Simpler Than We Think. London, 2005.

66

Haldane, Andrew On Tackling the Credit Cycle and Too Big to Fail (January 2011). См.: http://www.iiea.com/event/download_powerpoint?urlKey=andrew– haldane-on-fixingfinance. Также см.: Hu, Henry Too Complex to Depict? Innovation, “Pure Information” and the SEC Disclosure Paradigm // Texas Law Review (June 2012). [Коды стран приведены по ГОСТ 7.67–2003: ГЕР – Германия, ДАН – Дания, ИСП – Испания, ФИН – Финляндия, ИРЯ – Ирландия, ИТА – Италия, ЯПО – Япония, ЛЮК – Люксембург, ПОР – Португалия, НИД – Нидерланды, ШВЕ – Швеция, СОЕ – США, ГРИ – Греция, КАЙ – Каймановы о-ва, АВТ – Австрия, АВС – Австралия, БЕЛ – Бельгия, КАН – Канада, ШВА – Швейцария.]

67

Nassim Taleb Antifragile: Things that Gain from Disorder. N. Y., Random House, 2012.

68

Kornai, Janos The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism. Oxford, 1992.

69

Bagehot Lombard Street, pp. 17, 160f.

70

Ibid. P. 165.

71

Ibid. Pp. 58f.

72

Ibid. P. 199.

73

Ibid. P. 235.

74

Ibid. P. 325.

75

Ibid. P. 321.

76

Kotlikoff, Laurence J., and John C. Goodman Solving our Nation’s Financial Crisis with Limited Purpose Banking. Boston University Working Paper (15 April 2009). Также см.: Kay, John Narrow Banking: The Reform of Banking Regulation. Centre for the Study of Financial Innovation (2009).

77

Ferguson, Niall Too Big to Live: Why We Must Stamp Out State Monopoly Capitalism // Adam Smith Review, 6 (2011): 327–340.

78

Bagehot Lombard Street, p. 334.

79

Ibid. P. 336.

80

Morgenson, Gretchen Lending Magnate Settles Fraud Case // New York Times, 15 October 2010.

81

Chen Guangcheng How China Flouts its Laws // New York Times, 29 May 2012.

82

He Weifang China’s First Steps towards Constitutionalism / In: In the Name of Justice: Striving for the Rule of Law in China. He Weifang, ed. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2012. Pp. 63–101.

83

Bingham, Tom The Rule of Law. London, 2010.

84

Wilson, Ben What Price Liberty? How Freedom was Won and is Being Lost. London, 2009.

85

Dworkin, Ronald Law’s Empire. London, 1986. Pp. 166, 225.

86

Ibid. P. 346.

87

Dworkin, Ronald Justice for Hedgehogs. Cambridge, MA, 2011. P. 402.

88

North, Douglass C. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge, 1990. P. 54.

89

Ibid. P. 59.

90

Greif, Avner Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade / In: Ménard, C., and M. Shirley, eds. Handbook of New Institutional Economics. Dordrecht, 2005. Pp. 727–786.

91

La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, Shleifer, Andrei, and Robert W. Vichny Legal Determinants of External Finance // Journal of Finance, 52, 3 (July 1997): 1131–1150.

92

Ibid.

93

La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, Shleifer, Andrei, and Robert W. Vichny Investor Protection and Corporate Governance // Journal of Financial Economics, 58 (2000): 3–27.

94

Djankov, Simeon, La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Andrei Shleifer The Regulation of Entry // Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117, 1 (February 2002): 1–37.

95

Djankov, Simeon, La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Andrei Shleifer Courts // Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118, 2 (May 2003): 453–517.

96

Botero, Juan C., Djankov, Simeon, La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Andrei Shleifer The Regulation of Labor // Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119, 4 (November 2004): 1339–1382.

97

La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Andrei Shleifer What Works in Securities Laws? // Journal of Finance, 61, 1 (February 2006): 1–32.

98

Djankov, Simeon, Hart, Oliver, McLiesh, Caralee, and Andrei Shleifer Debt Enforcement around the World // Journal of Political Economy, 116, 6 (2008): 1105–1149.

99

La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Andrei Shleifer The Economic Consequences of Legal Origins // Journal of Economic Literature, 46, 2 (June 2008). Pp. 285–332.

100

Ibid. P. 300.

101

He Weifang The Ongoing Quest for Judicial Independence in China (2001) / In: In the Name of Justice: Striving for the Rule of Law in China. He Weifang, ed. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2012.

102

Greif, Avner Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy. Pp. 766–768.

103

См.: Lamoreaux, Naomi R., and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal Legal Regime and Business’s Organizational Choice: A Comparison of France and the United States during the Mid-Nineteenth Century // NBER Working Paper 10288 (February 2004); Lamoreaux, Naomi R., and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal Contractual Tradeoffs and SMEs’ Choice of Organizational Form: A View from U. S. and French History, 1830–2000 // NBER Working Paper 12455 (August 2006).

104

Guinnane, Timothy, Harris, Ron, Lamoreaux, Naomi R., and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal Putting the Corporation in its Place // NBER Working Paper 13109 (May 2007); Musacchio, Aldo Experiments in Financial Democracy: Corporate Governance and Financial Development in Brazil, 1882–1950. Cambridge, 2009.

105

Collison, David, Cross, Stuart, Ferguson, John, Power, David, and Lorna Stevenson Legal Determinants of External Finance Revisited: The Inverse Relationship between Investor Protection and Societal Well-Being // Journal of Business Ethics, 108 (2012): 393–410.

106

Dickens, Charles Bleak House (1852–1853). Ch. 1.

107

Slater, Michael Dickens: A Life Defined by Writing. New Haven, 2009. Pp. 340–358.

108

Danzig, Richard Hadley v. Baxendale: A Study in the Industrialization of the Law // Journal of Legal Studies, 4, 2 (June 1975): 267f.

109

Kostal, Rande W. Law and English Railway Capitalism, 1825–1875. Oxford, 1994.

110

Danzig Hadley v. Baxendale, p. 277.

111

Ibid. P. 252n.

112

Ibid. P. 254.

113

Kleinwort Benson v. Lincoln City Council [1999]. 2 AC349, Lord Goff at pp. 377 ff.

114

Howard, Philip K. It’s Time to Clean House // Atlantic Monthly, 14 March 2012.

115

Howard, Philip K. Results-Based Regulation: A Blueprint for Starting Over // Common Good, 2 December 2011. См.: http://www.commongood.org/blog/entry/philip-k. – howard-on-the-needfor-results-based-regulation.

116

Подсчитано на основе данных в: Brudnick, Ida A. Congressional Salaries and Allowances. Congressional Research Service report, 4 January 2011; Office of Management and Budget Fiscal Year 2013 Budget of the U.S. Government (Washington, DC, 2010); the 2013 Federal Judicial Budget. Также см.: Dudley, Susan, and Melinda Warren Fiscal Stalemate Reflected in Regulators’ Budget: An Analysis of the U.S. Budget for Fiscal Years 2011 and 2012 // Regulators’ Budget Report 33, 11 May 2011.

117

Данные за 2011 год см.: http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/index.php.

118

Crain, Nicole V., and W. Mark Crain The Impact of Regulatory Costson Small Firms. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy (September 2010).

119

McQuillan, Lawrence J., Abramyan, Hovannes, and Anthony P. Archie Jackpot Justice: The True Cost of America’s Tort System. San Francisco, 2007. P. xii.

120

McQuillan, Lawrence J., and Hovannes Abramyan U.S. Tort Liability Index: 2010 Report. San Francisco, 2010. P. 18. Cf. Towers Perrin 2009 Update on U.S. Tort Cost Trends. N. p., 2009.

121

Chimerine, Lawrence, and Ross Eisenbrey The Frivolous Case for Tort Law Change: Opponents of the Legal System Exaggerate its Costs, Ignore its Benefits. Economic Policy Institute Briefing Paper (May 2005).

122

Kennedy, David, and Joseph Stiglitz Law and Economics with Chinese Characteristics: Institutions for Promoting Development in the Twenty-First Century. Oxford University Press, 2013.

123

Porter, Michael E., Delgado, Mercedes, Ketels, Christian, and Scott Stern Moving to a New Global Competitiveness Index / In: World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report, 2008–2009. Geneva, 2009.

124

Porter, Michael E., and Jan W. Rivkin The Looming Challenge to U.S. Competitiveness // Harvard Business Review (March 2012); Porter, Michael E., and Jan W. Rivkin Choosing the United States, ibid.

125

World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report, 2011–2012. Geneva, 2011.

126

Heritage Foundation Index of Economic Freedom 2011. Washington, DC, 2011. См.: http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking.

127

International Finance Corporation Doing Business 2011. Washington, DC, 2011.

128

World Justice Project Rule of Law Index 2011. Washington, DC, 2011.

129

World Bank Worldwide Governance Index. См.: www.govindicators.org.

130

International Financial Corporation Doing Business. См.: http://www.doingbusiness.org/.

131

Haggard, Stephan, and Lydia Tiede The Rule of Law and Economic Growth: Where Are We? // World Development, 39, 5 (2011). Pp. 673–685.

132

См.: Trebilcock, Michael, and Jing Leng The Role of Formal Contract Law and Enforcement in Economic Development // Virginia Law Review, 92 (2006). Pp. 1517–1580, esp. pp. 1554–1575.

133

Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. New York, 2012. Pp. 445f.

134

Clarke, Donald C. Power and Politics in the Chinese Court System: The Enforcement of Civil Judgments // Columbia Journal of Asian Law, 10, 1 (1996): 1–125.

135

He Weifang Constitutionalism as a Global Trend and its Impact on China (2004) / In: In the Name of Justice: Striving for the Rule of Law in China. He Weifang, ed. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2012.

136

Michelson, Ethan, and Sida Lui What Do Chinese Lawyers Want? Political Values and Legal Practice / In: Li Cheng, ed. China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation. Washington, DC, 2010. Pp. 310f., 316, 320, 328f.

137

Chen, Lulu Mainland’s Last Chance to Reform // South China Morning Post, 3 June 2012.

138

He Weifang Constitutionalism as a Global Trend and its Impact on China (2004) / In: In the Name of Justice: Striving for the Rule of Law in China. He Weifang, ed. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2012.

139

Olson, Mancur The Rise and Decline of Nations: Economic Growth, Stagflation and Social Rigidities. New Haven/London, 1982.

140

Petersen, R. Eric Representatives and Senators: Trends in Member Characteristics since 1945 // Congressional Research Service, 17 February 2012; Manning, Jennifer E. Membership of the 112th Congress: A Profile // Congressional Research Service, 1 March 2011; Tetteh, Edmund Election Statistics: UK 1918–2007 // House of Commons Library Research Paper 08/12, 1 February 2008.

141

Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America. Chicago, 2000. Book I, part 2, ch. 4.

142

Ibid. Book II, part 2, ch. 5.

143

Ibid.

144

Olasky, Marvin The Tragedy of American Compassion. Washington, DC, 1992.

145

Banfield, Edward C. The Moral Basis of a Backward Society. Glencoe, IL, 1958.

146

Putnam, Robert D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York, 2000.

147

Skocpol, Theda Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Life. Norman, OK, 2003.

148

Murray, Charles Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960–2010. New York, 2012.

149

Hall, Peter Social Capital in Britain // British Journal of Politics, 29 (1999), p. 419.

150

Harris, José Society and the State in Twentieth Century Britain / In: F. M.L. Thompson, ed. The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750–1950, vol. III: Social Agencies and Institutions. Oxford, 1990. P. 68.

151

Humphreys, Robert Poor Relief and Charity, 1869–1945. London, 2001. Tables 2.7, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, pp. 55, 68, 105, 109.

152

Lewis, Jane The Voluntary Sector, the State, and Social Work in Britain: The Charity Organisation Society and the Family Welfare Association since 1869. London, 1995.

153

Hall, Peter A. Social Capital in Britain // British Journal of Political Science, 29 (1999), pp. 421f.

154

Ср.: Friendly Societies // British Medical Journal, 25 December 1909, и Register of Friendly Societies. Report of the Chief Registrar, 2000–2001. London, 2001.

155

Gosden, P. H. J.H. Self-Help: Voluntary Associations in the Nineteenth Century. Leeds, 1973. Tables 3.1, 4.5, pp. 42, 104.

156

Schofer, Evan, and Marion Fourcade-Gourinchas The Structural Contexts of Civic Engagement: Voluntary Association Membership in Comparative Perspective // American Sociological Review, 66 (December 2001), p. 808.

157

National Council for Voluntary Organizations Participation: Trends, Facts and Figures (March 2011), p. 18.

158

Cowley, Edd, McKenzie, Tom, Pharoah, Cathy, and Sarah Smith The New State of Donation: Three Decades of Household Giving to Charity, 1978–2008. Centre for Market and Public Organisation, University of Bristol (February 2011).

159

Rutherfoord, Robert Community Action in England: A Report on the 2009–2010 Citizenship Survey (December 2011); Rutherfoord, Robert Community Spirit in England: A Report on the 2009–2010 Citizenship Survey (December 2011).

160

Schmidt, Eric, and Jared Cohen The Digital Disruption: Connectivity and the Diffusion of Power // Foreign Affairs (November/December, 2010).

161

Ellison, Nicole B., Steinfield, Charles, and Cliff Lampe The Benefits of Facebook “Friends”: Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites // Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 4 (2007). См.: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol12/issue4/ellison.html. Также см.: Ellison, Nicole B., Steinfield, Charles, and Cliff Lampe Connection Strategies: Social Capital Implications of Facebook-Enabled Communication Practices // New Media Society, 13, 6 (2011), pp. 873–892.

162

Tocqueville, Alexis de Democracy in America. Book II, part 4, ch. 6.

163

Ibid. Part 2, ch. 5.

164

Lindert, Peter H. Voice and Growth: Was Churchill Right? // Journal of Economic History, 63, 2 (June 2003), pp. 315–350; Lindert, Peter H. Why the Welfare State Looks Like a Free Lunch // NBER Working Paper 9869 (July 2003). Также см.: Sun Go, and Peter H. Lindert The Curious Dawn of American Public Schools // NBER Working Paper 13335 (August 2007).

165

Collier, Paul Private v State: Here’s How to Bridge the Educational Divide // Independent, 14 January 2010.

166

The Horse before the Cart // Economist, 17 September 2011.

167

Education Reform: Back to School // Economist, 9 September 2011.

168

Justesen, Mogens Kamp Learning from Europe: Parental Empowerment in the Dutch and Danish Education Systems. Adam Smith Institute (2002).

169

Данные за 2010–2011 годы см.: http://www.successacademies.org/page.cfm?p=11.

170

The Ties that Bind // Economist, 28 March 2012.

171

Tooley, James The Beautiful Tree: A Personal Journey into How the World’s Poorest People are Educating Themselves. Washington, DC, 2009.

172

West, Martin, and Ludger Woessmann “Every Catholic in a Catholic School”: Historical Resistance to State Schooling, Contemporary School Competition, and Student Achievement across Countries // Economic Journal, 120, 546 (2010), pp. 229–255.

173

Helm, Toby, and Julian Coman Rowan Williams Pours Scorn on David Cameron’s “Big Society” // Guardian, 24 June 2012.

174

Martin Sime Addresses the Big Society in Scotland Conference. 28 October 2011. См.: http://www.scvo.org.uk/scvo-news/martin-sime-addresses-the-big-society-inscotland-conference/.

175

Allen, Robert C., Bassino, Jean-Pascal, Ma, Debin, Christine Moll-Murata, and Jan Luiten van Zanden Wages, Prices, and Living Standards in China, 1739–1925: In Comparison with Europe, Japan, and India // Economic History Review, 64 (2011), table 3, p. 36.

176

Ashenfelter, Orley C. Comparing Real Wages // NBER Working Paper 18006 (April 2012).

177

Unz, Ron Race, IQ and Wealth // American Conservative (August 2012); Lynn, Richard, and Tatu Vanhanen IQ and the Wealth of Nations. Westport, CT, 2002.

178

Подсчитано на основе данных Эммануэль Саэс (TabFig2010.xls, fig. A1b). См.: http://emlab.berkeley.edu/users/saez/.

179

Ibid. См.: http://emlab.berkeley.edu/users/saez/.

180

McKinsey Global Institute Urban World: Cities and the Rise of the Consuming Class (June 2012), p. 20. Также см.: McKinsey Global Institute India’s Urban Awakening: Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth (April 2010).

181

West, Geoffrey Why Cities Keep Growing, Corporations and People Always Die, and Life Gets Faster // Edge, 17 July 2011. Также см. лекцию Уэста для TED: http://www.ted.com/talks/geoffrey_west_the_surprising_math_of_cities_and_corporations.html.

182

См.: Cohen, David Earth’s Natural Wealth: An Audit // New Scientist, 23 May 2007. Расчеты, касающиеся углеводородного топлива, опираются на данные “Бритиш петролеум” и рыночные цены середины 2011 года.

183

Milken, Michael Where’s Sputnik? Summoning the Will to Create the Next American Century // Milken Institute Review, 2nd Quarter (2011), pp. 1–20.

184

Ernst & Young The World is Bumpy: Globalization and New Strategies for Growth (2012). Fig. 4, p. 8.

185

Pinker, Steven The Better Angels of our Nature: The Decline of Violence and its Psychological Roots. New York, 2011.

186

Odlyzko, Andrew Crushing National Debts, Economic Revolutions, and Extraordinary Popular Delusions. University of Minnesota Working Paper (2012).

187

Reinhart, Carmen M., Reinhart, Vincent R., and Kenneth S. Rogoff Debt Overhangs: Past and Present // NBER Working Paper 18015 (April 2012).

188

Krugman, Paul Money for Nothing // New York Times, 26 July 2012.

189

Thiel, Peter Swift Blind Horseman // National Review, 3 October 2011.

190

Turchin, Peter Dynamics of Political Instability in the United States, 1780–2010 // Journal of Peace Research 1–15 (2012).

191

Речь, произнесенная в Роаноке (штат Виргиния) 13 июля 2012 года. См.: http://www.whitehouse.gov/thepress-office/2012/07/13/remarks-president-campaign-eventroanoke-virginia.