Стань умнее. Развитие мозга на практике [заметки]

Сноски

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Гоулман Д. Эмоциональный интеллект. Почему он может значить больше, чем IQ. – М.: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2013.

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Гладуэлл М. Гении и аутсайдеры. Почему одним все, а другим ничего? – М.: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2014.

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Таф П. Как дети добиваются успеха: любознательность, оптимизм, настойчивость, сила характера. – М.: Эксмо, 2013.

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Фоер Д. Эйнштейн гуляет по Луне. Наука и искусство запоминания. – М.: Альпина Паблишер, 2013.

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Дерек Джетер – бейсбольный игрок, капитан команды «Нью-Йорк Янки». В составе своей команды пять раз одерживал победу на ежегодном чемпионате США по бейсболу. – Прим. ред.

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The Onion (англ. луковица) – американское агентство сатирических новостей, состоящее из развлекательной газеты и сайта, которые публикуют сатирические статьи о международных, национальных и местных новостях. – Прим. ред.

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Pearson PLC – британская издательская и образовательная корпорация, основанная в 1884 году. Является крупнейшим издателем образовательной литературы в мире. – Прим. ред.

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Беби-бумеры – дети, которые родились во время пика рождаемости в США после окончания Второй мировой войны, в 1947–1951 годах. – Прим. ред.

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Кэмпбелл Д. Эффект Моцарта. – Минск: Попурри, 1999.

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Кабат-Зинн Дж. Самоучитель по исцелению. – Минск: Попурри, 2002.

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Филипп Раштон, психолог из Университета Западного Онтарио, печально прославился в 1980-е и 1990-е годы пропагандой расистских взглядов в области генетики интеллекта и преступности. – Прим. пер.

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Джон Локк (1632–1704) – британский педагог и философ, представитель эмпиризма и сенсуализма. Отрицал существование в человеческом разуме каких бы то ни было врожденных идей, настаивая, что любое знание человек приобретает только посредством опыта. – Прим. ред.

Комментарии

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http://www.brightkidsnyc.com/2013/01/olsat-bootcamp-waitlist-now-available/. Доступ осуществлен 13 июля 2013 г.

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Anna M. Phillips, «After Number of Gifted Soars, a Fight for Kindergarten Slots», New York Times, April 13, 2012, См. также Elissa Gootman, «More Children Take the Tests for Gifted Programs, and More Qualify», New York Times, May 5, 2009.

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Al. Baker, «More in New York City Qualify as Gifted After Error Is Fixed», New York Times, April 19, 2013.

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http://www.brightkidsnyc.com/2013/04/bright-kids-nyc-delivers-record-results-on-the-gifted-and-talented-exam/. Доступ осуществлен 13 июля 2013 г.

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См. потрясающую и шокирующую книгу журналиста-исследователя Эдвина Блэка War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (Washington, D.C.: Dialog Press, 2003).

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Ashley Parker and Julia Preston, «Paper on Immigrant I. Q. Dogs Critic of Overhaul», New York Times, May 8, 2013.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Talented_Youth.

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Batty G. D., Gale C. R., et al., «IQ in early adulthood, socioeconomic position, and unintentional injury mortality by middle age: A cohort study of more than 1 million Swedish men», Am. J. Epidemiol., 2009 Mar. 1; 169 (5): 606–615.

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Hart C. L., Taylor M. D., et al., «Childhood IQ, social class, deprivation, and their relationships with mortality and morbidity risk in later life», Psychosomatic Medicine, 2003 Sep. – Oct.; 65 (5): 877–883.

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Battya G. D., Dearyb I. J., «The association between IQ in adolescence and a range of health outcomes at 40 in the 1979 US National Longitudinal Study of Youth», Intelligence, 2009 Nov. – Dec.; 37 (6): 573–580.

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Kuh D., Butterworth S., et al., «Childhood cognitive ability and age at menopause: Evidence from two cohort studies», Menopause, 2005 Jul. – Aug.; 12 (4): 475–482.

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Национальный совет по вопросам инвалидности, http://www.ncd.gov/publications/2013/20130315/20130315_Ch2.

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James Dao, «Rules Eased for Veterans» Brain Injury Benefits», New York Times, December 7, 2012.

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Ассоциация Альцгеймера, http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_facts_and_figures.asp.

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Yeo R. A., Arden R., et al., «Alzheimer’s disease and intelligence», Current Alzheimer Research, 2011 Jun.; 8 (4): 345–353.

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Vinogradov S., Fisher M., et al., «Cognitive training for impaired neural systems in neuropsychiatric illness», Neuropsychopharmacology, 2012 Jan.; 37 (1): 43–76.

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Jaeggi S., Buschkuehl M., «Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory», PNAS, 2008 May 13; 105 (19): 6829–6833.

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Sternberg R., «Increasing fluid intelligence is possible after all», PNAS, 2008 May 13; 105 (19): 6791–6792.

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Redick T. S., Shipstead Z., et al., «No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study», J. Exp. Psychol. Gen., 2013 May; 142 (2): 359–379. Smith SP., Stibric M., et al., «Exploring the effectiveness of commercial and custom-built games for cognitive training», Computers in Human Behavior, 2013 Nov.; 29 (6): 2388–2393; Thompson T. W., Waskom M. L., «Failure of working memory training to enhance cognition or intelligence», PLoS One, 2013 May 22; 8 (5): e63614, Chooi W. – T., Thompson L. A., «Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults», Intelligence, 2012 Nov. – Dec.; 40 (6): 531–542.

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Скептики от науки и защитники эффективности когнитивных тренингов не прекращают жарких споров по поводу данных исследований; об этом я подробно расскажу в главах 8 и 10. Некоторые эксперты убеждены, что свидетельством эффективности тренингов можно считать большее число исследований; другие думают, что серьезную критику способны выдержать лишь очень немногие. Описанию и оценке этих исследований посвящена значительная часть моей книги. Я включил в группу исследований, выявивших позитивный эффект, только те 75, которые имели рандомизированную, плацебо-контролируемую структуру и публиковались в рецензируемых научных журналах. Это не только исследования на базе двойного N-back вроде описанного в 2008 году Джегги с коллегами, но и на базе прочих видов тренингов рабочей памяти, а также с применением других программ когнитивного тренинга, например Posit Science Майкла Мерцениха. Кроме того, я включил в данную группу те, которые проводились с использованием методик медитативного сосредоточения, обучения игре на музыкальных инструментах и физических упражнений. Хотя позитивное влияние тренингов на подвижный интеллект как таковой выявили только 22 из этих 75 исследований, остальные 53 свидетельствуют о серьезных улучшениях в таких аспектах, как внимание, рабочая память, чтение и другие важные интеллектуальные навыки и способности. Общим для всех исследований является то, что они были относительно короткими, понятными и простыми в реализации. Все они требовали не более двух-четырех часов тренинга в неделю и при этом приводили к статистически значимым улучшениям когнитивных функций испытуемых. Далее перечислены 53 исследования, которые продемонстрировали позитивные сдвиги в разных аспектах, за исключением повышения уровня подвижного интеллекта; в следующем примечании перечисляются 22, выявившие позитивный эффект тренингов на подвижный интеллект и логическое мышление. // • Alloway T. P., Alloway R. G., «The efficacy of working memory training in improving crystallized intelligence», Nature Precedings, 2009 Sep. http://precedings.nature.com/documents/3697/version/1. // • Anderson S., White-Schwoch T., et al., «Reversal of age-related neural timing delays with training», PNAS, 2013 Mar. 12; 110 (11): 4357–4362. // • Angevaren M., Aufdemkampe G., et al., «Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment», Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2008 (3): CD005381. // • Ball K., Berch D. B., et al., «Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: A randomized controlled trial», JAMA, 2002 Nov. 13; 288 (18): 2271–2281. // • Bell M., Bryson G., et al., «Cognitive remediation of working memory deficits: Durability of training effects in severely impaired and less severely impaired schizophrenia», Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 2003; 108: 101–109. // • Bennett S. J., Holmes J., et al., «Computerized memory training leads to sustained improvement in visuospatial short-term memory skills in children with Down syndrome», Am. J. Intel. Dev. Disab., 2013; 118 (3): 179–192. // • Boron J. B., Willis S. L., et al., «Cognitive training gains as a predictor of mental status», J. Gerontol., 2007 Jan.; 62B (1): P45–Р51. // • Brehmer Y., Westerberg H., et al., «Working-memory training in younger and older adults: Training gains, transfer, and maintenance», Front. Hum. Neurosci., 2012 Mar.; 6: 63. // • Buschkuehl M., Jaeggi S. M., et al., «Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults», Psychol. Aging, 2008 Dec.; 23 (4): 745–753. // • Chein J. M., Morrison A. B., «Expanding the mind’s workspace: Training and transfer effects with a complex working memory span task», Psychon. Bull. Rev., 2010 Apr.; 17 (2): 193–199. // • Dahlin K. I.E., «Effects of working memory training on reading in children with special needs», Reading and Writing, 2011; 24: 479–491. // • Erickson K. I., Voss M. W., et al., «Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory», PNAS, 2011 Feb. 15; 108 (7): 3017–3022. // • Fisher M., Holland C., et al., «Using neuroplasticity-based auditory training to improve verbal memory in schizophrenia», Am. J. Psychiatry, 2009 Jul.; 166 (7): 805–811. // • Gray S. A., Chaban P., et al., «Effects of a computerized working memory training program on working memory, attention, and academics in adolescents with severe LD and comorbid ADHD: A randomized controlled trial», J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry, 2012 Dec.; 53 (12): 1277–1284. // • Green C. T., Long D. L., et al., «Will working memory training generalize to improve off-task behavior in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder?», Neurotherapeutics, 2012 Jul.; 9 (3): 639–648. // • Hardy K. K., Willard V. W., et al., «Working memory training in survivors of pediatric cancer: A randomized pilot study», Psycho-Oncology, 2012 Dec. 2 (электронная версия, предшествовавшая печатной). // • Hawkins H. L., Kramer A. F., et al., «Aging, exercise, and attention», Psychol. Aging, 1992 Dec.; 7 (4): 643–653. // • Heinzel S., Schulte S., et al., «Working memory training improvements and gains in non-trained cognitive tasks in young and older adults», Neuropsychol. Dev. Cogn. B. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn., 2013 May 2 (электронная версия, предшествовавшая печатной). // • Holmes J., Gathercole S. E., et al., «Working memory deficits can be overcome: Impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD», Appl. Cognit. Psychol., 2010 Sep.; 24 (6): 827–836. // • Holmes J., Gathercole S. E., et al., «Adaptive training leads to sustained nhancement of poor working memory in children», Dev. Sci., 2009 Jul.; 12 (4): F9–F15. // • Houben K., Wiers R. W., et al., «Getting a grip on drinking behavior: Training working memory to reduce alcohol abuse», Psychol. Sci., 2011 Jul.; 22 (7): 968–975. // • Kesler S., Hadi Hosseini S. M., et al., «Cognitive training for improving executive function in chemotherapy-treated breast cancer survivors», Clin. Breast. Cancer., 2013 Aug.; 13 (4): 299–306. // • Klingberg T., Fernell E., et al., «Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD – a randomized, controlled trial», J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2005; 44 (2): 177–186. // • Klusmann V., Evers A., et al., «Complex mental and physical activity in older women and cognitive performance: A 6-month randomized controlled trial», J. Gerontol. A. Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., 2010 Jun.; 65 (6): 680–688. // • Kramer A. F., Hahn S., et al., «Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function», Nature, 1999 Jul. 29; 400 (6743): 418–419. // • Kray J., Karbach J., «Can task-switching training enhance executive control functioning in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?», Front. Hum. Neurosci., 2011; 5: 180. // • Kundu B., Sutterer D. W., et al., «Strengthened effective connectivity underlies transfer of working memory training to tests of short-term memory and attention», J. Neurosci., 15 May 2013; 33 (20): 8705–8715. // • Li S. C., Schmiedek F., et al., «Working memory plasticity in old age: Practice gain, transfer, and maintenance», Psychol. Aging, 2008 Dec.; 23 (4): 731–742. // • Lilienthal L., Tamez E., et al., «Dual n-back training increases the capacity of the focus of attention», Psychon. Bull. Rev., 2013 Feb.; 20 (1): 135–341. // • Liu-Ambrose T., Nagamatsu L. S., et al., «Resistance training and executive functions: A 12-month randomized controlled trial», Arch. Intern. Med., 2010; 170 (2): 170–178. // • Loosli S. V., Buschkuehl M., et al., «Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children», Child. Neuropsychol., 2012; 18 (1): 62–78. // • McGurk S.R., Mueser K. T., et al., «Cognitive training and supported employment for persons with severe mental illness: One-year results from a randomized controlled trial», Schiz. Bull., 2005; 31 (4): 898–909. // • Minear M., Shah P., «Training and transfer effects in task switching», Mem. Cognit., 2008 Dec.; 36 (8): 1470–1483. // • Nagamatsu L. S., Handy T. C., et al., «Resistance training promotes cognitive and functional brain plasticity in seniors with probable mild cognitive impairment», Arch. Intern. Med., 2012 Apr. 23; 172 (8): 666–668. // • Nagamatsu L. S., Chan A., et al., «Physical activity improves verbal and spatial memory in older adults with probable mild cognitive impairment: A 6-month randomized controlled trial», J. Aging Res., 2013; 2013: article ID 861893. // • Olesen P. J., Westerberg H., Klingberg T., «Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory», Nat. Neurosci., 2004 Jan.; 7 (1): 75–79. // • Owens M., Koster E. H., et al., «Improving attention control in dysphoria through cognitive training: Transfer effects on working memory capacity and filtering efficiency», Psychophysiology, 2013 Mar.; 50 (3): 297–307. // • Prins P. J., Dovis S., et al., «Does computerized working memory training with game elements enhance motivation and training efficacy in children with ADHD?», Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw., 2011 Mar.; 14 (3): 115–122. // • Reed J. A., Maslow A. L., et al., «Examining the impact of 45 minutes of daily physical exercise on cognitive ability, fitness performance, and body composition of African American youth», J. Phys. Act. Health, 2013 Feb.; 10 (2): 185–197. // • Richmond L. L., Morrison A. B., et al., «Working memory training and transfer in older adults», Psychol. Aging, 2011 Dec.; 26 (4): 813–822. // • Salminen T., Strobach T., et al., «On the impacts of working memory training on executive functioning», Front. Hum. Neurosci., 2012; 6: 166. // • Schweizer S., Hampshire A., et al., «Extending brain-training to the affective domain: Increasing cognitive and affective executive control through emotional working memory training», PLoS One, 2011; 6 (9): e24372. // • Schweizer S., Grahn J., et al., «Training the emotional brain: Improving affective control through emotional working memory training», J. Neurosci, 2013 Mar. 20; 33 (12): 5301–5311. // • Smith G. E., Housen P., et al., «A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: Results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT) study», J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 2009 Apr.; 57 (4): 594–603. // • Subramaniam K., Luks T. L., et al., «Computerized cognitive training restores neural activity within the reality monitoring network in schizophrenia», Neuron., 2012 Feb. 23; 73: 842–853. // • Tang Y. – Y., Ma Y., et al., «Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation», PNAS, 2007 Oct. 23; 104 (43): 17152–17156. // • Tang Y. – Y., Lu Q., et al., «Mechanisms of white matter changes inducted by meditation», PNAS, 2012 Jun. 26; 109 (26): 10570–10574. // • Thorell L. B., Lindqvist S., et al., «Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children», Dev. Sci., 2009 Jan.; 12 (1): 106–113. // • Van der Molen M. J., Van Luit J. E., et al., «Effectiveness of a computerised working memory training in adolescents with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities», J. Intellect. Disabil. Res., 2010 May; 54 (5): 433–447. // • Vartaniana O., Jobidona M. E., «Working memory training is associated with lower prefrontal cortex activation in a divergent thinking task», Neuroscience, 2013 Apr. 16; 236: 186–194. // • Von Bastian C. C., Langer N., et al., «Effects of working memory training in young and old adults», Mem. Cognit., 2013 May; 41 (4): 611–624. // • Wolinsky F. D., Vander Weg M. W., et al., «A randomized controlled trial of cognitive training using a visual speed of processing intervention in middle aged and older adults», PLoS One, 2013 May 1; 8 (5): e61624. // • Zinke K., Zeintl M., «Working memory training and transfer in older adults: Effects of age, baseline performance, and training gains», Dev. Psychol., 2013 May 20 (электронная версия, предшествовавшая печатной).

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Привожу список следующих 22 исследований. // • Basak C., Boot W. R., et al., «Can training in real-timestrategy video gameattenuate cognitive decline in older adults?», Psychol. Aging, 2008; 23 (4): 765–777. // • Bergman N. S., Soderqvist S., et al., «Gains in fluid intelligence after trainingnon-verbalreasoning in 4-year-oldchildren: A controlled, randomized study», Dev. Sci., 2011 May; 14 (3): 591–601. // • Borella E., Carretti B., et al., «Working memory training in older adults: Evidence of transfer and maintenance effects», Psychol. Aging, 2010;25 (4): 767–778. // • Carretti B., Borella E., et al., «Gains in language comprehension relating toworking memory training in healthy older adults», Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry, 2013 May; 28 (5): 539–546. // • Herrnstein R. J., Nickerson R. S., et al., «Teaching thinking skills», Am. Psychol., 1986 Nov.; 41 (11): 1279–1289. // • Jaeggi S. M., Studer-Luethi B., et al., «The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer», Intelligence, 2010; 38: 625–635. // • Jaeggi S. M., Buschkuehl M., et al., «Short– and long-term benefits of cognitive training», PNAS, 2011 Jun. 21; 108 (25): 10081–10086. // • Jausovec N., Jausovec K., «Working memory training: Improving intelligence – changing brain activity», Brain Cogn., 2012; 79: 96–106. // • Karbach J., Kray J., «How useful is executive control training? Agedifferences in near and far transfer of task-switchingtraining», Dev. Sci., 2009 Nov.; 12 (6): 978–990. // • Mackey A. P., Hill S. S., et al., «Differential effects of reasoning and speed training in children», Dev. Sci., 2011 May; 14 (3): 582–590. // • Moreno S., Bialystok E., et al., «Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence and executive function», Psychol. Sci., 2011 Nov.; 22 (11): 1425–1433. // • Neville H. J., Stevens C., et al., «Family-based training program improves brain function, cognition, and behavior in lower socioeconomic status preschoolers», PNAS, 2013 Jul. 1 (электронная версия, предшествовавшая печатной). // • Roughan L., Hadwin J. A., «The impact of working memory training in young people with social, emotional and behavioral difficulties», Learning and Individual Differences, 2011 Dec.; 21 (6): 759–764. // • Rudebeck S. R., Bor D., et al., «A potential spatial working memory training task to improve both episodic memory and fluid intelligence», PloSOne, 2012; 7 (11): e50431. // • Rueda M. R., Checa P., et al., «Enhanced efficiency of the executive attention network after training in preschool children: Immediate and after two months effects», Dev. Cogn. Neurosci., 2012 Feb. 15; 2 Suppl. 1: S192–S204. // • Rueda M. R., Rothbart M. K., et al., «Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention», PNAS, 2005 Oct. 11; 102 (41): 14931–14936. // • Schmiedek F., Loveden M., et al., «Hundred days of cognitive training enhance broad cognitive abilities in adulthood: Findings from the COGITO study», Front. Aging Neurosci., 2010 Jul. 13; 2. // • Soderqvist S., Nutley S. B., et al., «Computerized training of non-verbal reasoning and working memory in children with intellectual disability», Front. Hum. Neurosci., 2012; 6: 271. // • Stephenson C. L., Halpern D. F., «Improved matrix reasoning is limited to training on tasks with a visuospatial component», Intelligence, 2013; 41: 341–357. // • Von Bastian C. C., Oberauer K., «Distinct transfer effects of training different facets of working memory capacity», J. Mem. Lang., 2013 Jul.; 69 (1): 36–58. // • Wolf D., Fischer F. U., et al., «Structural integrity of the corpus callosum predicts long-term transfer of fluid intelligence-related training gains in normal aging», Hum. Brain. Mapp., 2012 Sep. 11 (электронная версия, предшествовавшая печатной). // • Zhao X., Wang Y. X., et al., «Effect of updating training on fluid intelligence in children», Chin. Sci. Bull., 2011 Jul.; 56 (21): 2202–2205.

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Paris A. P., Saleta H. G., et al., «Blind randomized controlled study of the efficacy of cognitive training in Parkinson’s disease», Mov. Disord., 2011 Jun.; 26 (7): 1251–1258.

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Schweizer S., Grahn J., et al., «Training the emotional brain: Improving affective control through emotional working memory training», J. Neurosci., 2013 Mar. 20; 33 (12): 5301–5311.

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Chein J. M., Morrison A. B., «Expanding the mind’s workspace: Training and transfer effects with a complex working memory span task», Psychon. Bull. Rev., 2010 Apr.; 17 (2): 193–199.

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Wolinsky F. D., Vander Weg M. W., et al., op.cit.

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Klingberg Т., «The Learning Brain: Memory and Brain Development in Children» (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

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Jaeggi S. M., Buschkuehl M., et al., «Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory», PNAS, 2008 May 13; 105 (19): 6829–6833.

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Highfield R., «Brain Training» Games Do Work, Study Finds», Telegraph, April 28, 2008. Bakalar N., «Memory Training Shown to Turn Up Brainpower», New York Times, April 29, 2008.

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Sternberg R., «Increasing fluid intelligence is possible after all», PNAS, 2008 May 13; 105 (19): 6791–6792.

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Hurley D., «A Drug for Down Syndrome», New York Times Magazine, July 29, 2011.

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Согласно Google, по состоянию на 14 июля 2013 года исследование Джегги и Бушкюля цитировалось в 539 работах их коллег.

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Chein J. M., Morrison A. B., «Expanding the mind’s workspace: Training and transfer effects with a complex working memory span task», Psychon. Bull. Rev., 2010 Apr.; 17 (2): 193–199.

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См. Moreno S., Bialystok E., op. cit.; and Schellenberg E. G., «Music lessons enhance IQ», Psychol. Sci., 2004 Aug.; 15 (8): 511–514.

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190

См., например, Flynn J. R., «What Is Intelligence?» (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007) and «Are We Getting Smarter? Rising IQ in the Twenty-First Century» (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

191

См., например, Nickerson R. S., «Project Intelligence: An account and some reflections», Special Services in the Schools, 1986 Fall – Winter; 3 (1): 83–102; and Herrnstein E. J., Nickerson R. S., et al., op. cit.

192

Платформа Республиканской партии штата Техас, 2012 г., с. 12.http://s3.amazonaws.com/texasgop_pre/assets/original/2012Platform_Final.pdf.