Машина правды [заметки]

1

Издана на русском языке: Винья П., Кейси М.Эпоха криптовалют. Как биткоин и блокчейн меняют мировой экономический порядок. М.: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2018. Прим. ред.

2

В книге употребляются два варианта написания термина «биткоин» — с прописной и строчной буквы, что объясняется разницей в значении. Слово «биткоин» в значении валюта, денежная единица, пишется со строчной буквы; если же речь идет о платежной системе и одноименном протоколе передачи данных, лежащем в основе технологии блокчейн, — то с прописной.

3

Термин «блокчейн» в последнее время употребляется широко, но не всегда корректно. Мы будем использовать его в трех основных значениях. Первое — «Блокчейн» с прописной буквы как изначальный распределенный реестр биткоина. Второе — «блокчейн» со строчной буквы (имеет форму множественного числа «блокчейны») как любой распределенный реестр, имеющий вид непрерывной цепочки блоков. Наконец, третье — «технология блокчейн», включающая в себя всю совокупность методов, принципов, технологий и их применения. Кроме того, говоря о технологии «распределенных реестров», мы имеем в виду не только блокчейны, но и любые распределенные реестры вообще. Нам не хотелось бы использовать слово «блокчейн» как неизменяемое и неисчислимое абстрактное существительное. С нашей точки зрения, блокчейн (как и любой реестр) — вполне конкретный объект, а не процесс и не метод. В названии книги мы пишем слово «Блокчейн» с прописной буквы, чтобы подчеркнуть ту роль, которую изначальный Блокчейн — реестр биткоина — сыграл в становлении новой технологической сферы.

4

Интервью проведено сотрудниками ВПП. Отправлено Майклу Кейси по электронной почте 7 августа 2017 года.

5

Интервью взято Майклом Кейси по телефону 20 июля 2017 года.

6

Международная финансовая организация, созданная в 1959 году в целях финансовой поддержки экономики стран Латинской Америки и Карибского бассейна.

7

Подробнее об этом см: Kashmir Hill, “‘God View’: Uber Allegedly Stalked Users For Party-Goers’ Viewing Pleasure,” Forbes, October 3, 2014, https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2014/10/03/god-view-uber-allegedly-stalked-users-for-party-goers-viewing-pleasure/#2aa731af3141.

8

Подробное объяснение архитектуры Internet 3.0 см. в: Jeff Hussey, “Internet 3.0: Welcome to the Future of Secure Networking,” Tempered Networks, https://www.temperednetworks.com/blog/internet-3-0-welcome-to-the-future-of-secure-networking/.

9

Также известна как экономика совместного потребления. Концепцию предложили экономисты Рэйчел Ботсман и Ру Роджерс исходя из идеи, что потребителю часто выгоднее платить за временный доступ к продукту, чем владеть им. Данная экономическая модель набирает популярность и, по версии журнала Time, относится к явлениям, которые изменят мир в ближайшем будущем. Прим. ред.

10

См. об этом: Jonathan Shieber, “Blockchain Consortium R3 Raises $107 Million,” TechCrunch, May 23, 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/05/23/blockchain-consortium-r3-raises-107-million/.

11

Цифры предоставлены Майклу Кейси порталом CoinDesk. Получены по электронной почте 22 августа 2017 года.

12

См. Chris Burniske and Jack Tatar, Cryptoassets: The Innovative Investor’s Guide to Bitcoin and Beyond (McGraw Hill, 2017).

13

Термин «интернет ценностей» был введен в обиход командой Ripple Labs, которая занимается разработкой протокола для одноранговых платежей и транзакций. Первое упоминание см. в: Stefan Thomas, “The Internet’s Missing Link,” TechCrunch, September 27, 2014, https://techcrunch.com/2014/09/27/the-internets-missing-link/.

14

Cм.: Douglas Garbutt, “The Significance of Ancient Mesopotamia in Accounting History,” Accounting Information 11, no. 1 (1984), http://www.accountingin.com/accounting-historians-journal/volume-11-number-1/the-significance-of-ancient-mesopotamia-in-accounting-history/.

15

Cм.: Lehman Brothers Holdings, Inc., “Annual Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 for the Fiscal Year Ended November 30, 2007,” United States Securities and Exchange Commission, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/806085/000110465908005476/a08-3530_110k.htm.

16

См.: Pew Research Center, “Public Trust in Government: 1958–2017,” May 3, 2017, http://www.people-press.org/2017/05/03/public-trust-in-government-1958-2017/.

17

См.: Gallup, “Confidence in Institutions,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/1597/confidence-institutions.aspx.

18

Подробнее о механизме использования «РЕПО 105 в деле Lehman Brothers см: Jacob Goldstein, “Repo 105: Lehman’s ‘Accounting Gimmick’ Explained,” NPR Planet Money, March 12, 2010, http://www.npr.org/sections/money/2010/03/repo_105_lehmans_accounting_gi.html.

19

См.: Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact (University of Chicago Press, 1998).

20

См.: Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact (University of Chicago Press, 1998).

21

См.: L. E. Sigler, Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci: A Translation into Modern English of Leonardo Pisano’s Book of Calculation (Springer, 2003).

22

См.: Jeremy Cripps, Particularis de Computis et Scripturis, a Contemporary Interpretation (Pacioli Society, 1994).

23

См.: Jeremy Cripps, Particularis de Computis et Scripturis, a Contemporary Interpretation (Pacioli Society, 1994)., p. 2.

24

См.: James Aho, Confession and Bookkeeping: The Religious, Moral, and Rhetorical Roots of Modern Accounting (State University of New York Press, 2006).

25

См.: James Aho, Confession and Bookkeeping: The Religious, Moral, and Rhetorical Roots of Modern Accounting (State University of New York Press, 2006).

26

Цит. по: Jeremy Cripps, Particularis de Computis et Scripturis: A Contemporary Interpretation (Pacioli Society, 1994).

27

См.: Matt Levine, “Bank of America Made $168 Million Last Quarter, More or Less,” Bloomberg View, October 15, 2014, https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2014-10-15/bank-of-america-made-168-million-last-quarter-more-or-less.

28

См.: Satoshi Nakamoto, ibid.

29

См.: “Triple Entry Accounting,” 2005, http://iang.org/papers/triple_entry.html.

30

О культуре шифропанка и ее роли в становлении криптовалют подробно рассказывается в книге «Эпоха криптовалют».

31

См.: Nick Szabo, “The God Protocols,” http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/rob/Courses/InformationInSpeech/CDROM/Literature/LOTwinterschool2006/szabo.best.vwh.net/msc.html.

32

Важное примечание: если ученые сумеют создать полноценный квантовый компьютер, то и защиту такого уровня можно будет взломать. Однако квантовые машины — пока еще дело далекого будущего. Кроме того, их появление сделает неработоспособными все системы кибербезопасности, а не только протокол биткоина. Тем не менее разработчики криптовалют уже занимаются системами нового поколения, которые теоретически смогут отражать и квантовые атаки.

33

Комментарий сделан во время саммита по вопросам технологии блокчейн на Британских Виргинских островах в июле 2017 года.

34

См.: Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Harper, 2015).

35

Полный отчет о происшествии см. в блоге Питера Симза: Peter Sims, “Can We Trust Uber?” Silicon Guild, September 6, 2014, https://thoughts.siliconguild.com/can-we-trust-uber-c0e793deda36.

36

См.: Johana Bhuiyan and Charlie Warzel, “ ‘God View’: Uber Investigates Its Top New York Executive For Privacy Violations,” BuzzFeed, November 18, 2014, https://www.buzzfeed.com/johanabhuiyan/uber-is-investigating-its-top-new-york-executive-for-privacy.

37

См.: Kaja White-house, “Uber Settles ‘God View’ Allegations,” USA Today, January 6, 2016, http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2016/01/06/uber-settles-god-view-allegations/78383276/.

38

См.: Craig Silverman and Duping Trump Supporters with Fake News,” BuzzFeed, November 3, 2016, https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/how-macedonia-became-a-global-hub-for-pro-trump-misinfo.

39

См., например, высказывания Брюса Шнайера, приведенные в статье: Barton Gellman, “Facebook: You’re Not the Customer, You’re the Product,” October 15, 2010, TIME, http://techland.time.com/2010/10/15/facebook-youre-not-the-customer-youre-the-product/, или статью в журнале The Economist “The world’s most valuable resource is no longer oil, but data,” Economist, May 6, 2017, https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21721656-data-economy-demands-new-approach-antitrust-rules-worlds-most-valuable-resource.

40

Подробный анализ этого судебного диспута можно найти здесь: Arash Khamooshi, “Breaking Down Apple’s iPhone Fight with the U.S. Government,” The New York Times, March 21, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/03/03/technology/apple-iphone-fbi-fight-explained.html.

41

См.: “Gartner Says Worldwide Information Security Spending Will Grow Almost 4.7 Percent to Reach $75.4 Billion in 2015,” Gartner, September 23, 2015, http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3135617.

42

Здесь и далее генеральный директор компании. Прим. ред.

43

См.: Stephen Gandel, “Lloyd’s CEO: Cyber Attacks Cost Companies $400 Billion Every Year,” Fortune, January 23, 2015, http://fortune.com/2015/01/23/cyber-attack-insurance-lloyds/.

44

См.: Juniper Research, “Cyber-crime Will Cost Businesses over $2 Trillion by 2019,” Juniper, May 12, 2015, https://www.juniperresearch.com/press/press-releases/cybercrime-cost-businesses-over-2trillion.

45

По оценкам Всемирного банка: “Global Economic Prospects: A Fragile Recovery,” World Bank Group, June 2017, https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/GEP2015a/pdfs/GEP15a_web_full.pdf.

46

Подробный анализ кибератаки можно найти здесь: Peter Tran, “The Dyn Attack — How Iot Can Take Down the “Global Information Grid” Back Bone (Part I),” RSA, October 25, 2016, https://www.rsa.com/en-us/blog/2016-10/the-dyn-attack-how-iot-can-take-down-the-global-information-grid-back-bone-part-i.

47

См.: Ralph Jacobsen, “2.5 Quintillion Bytes of Data Created Every Day. How Does CPG & Retail Manage It?” IBM, April 14, 2013, https://www.ibm.com/blogs/insights-on-business/consumer-products/2-5-quintillion-bytes-of-data-created-every-day-how-does-cpg-retail-manage-it/.

48

См.: “Identity Theft: The Aftermath 2013,” Identity Theft Resource Center, http://www.idtheftcenter.org/images/surveys_studies/Aftermath2013.pdf.

49

Вскоре после авиакатастрофы появились сообщения о том, что хакерская группа Naikon взломала официальный сайт правительства Малайзии. См.: Elsie Viebeck, “Cyberattacks Followed Malaysia Airlines Flight Disappearance,” The Hill, April 21, 2015, http://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/239529-cyberattacks-followed-malaysia-airlines-flight-disappearance.

50

См.: Brendan I. Koerner, “Inside the Cyberattack That Shocked the US Government,” Wired, October 23, 2016, https://www.wired.com/2016/10/inside-cyberattack-shocked-us-government/.

51

А. Лудвин выступал на симпозиуме DTCC 29 марта 2016 года.

52

См.: John Crossman: “The ‘Shared Secret’ Identity Model Is Finished,” Medium, February 24, 2016, https://medium.com/@john_17722/the-shared-secret-identity-model-is-finished-59bd30e1da6a и “The Device Identity Model,” Medium, February 26, 2016, https://medium.com/@john_17722/the-device-identity-model-6444ca6328f9.

53

См.: Anna Wilde Mathews, “Anthem: Hacked Database Included 78.8 Million People,” The Wall Street Journal, February 24, 2015, https://www.wsj.com/articles/anthem-hacked-database-included-78-8-million-people-1424807364.

54

См.: Ian Scherr, “WannaCry Ransomware: Everything You Need to Know,” CNET, May 19, 2017, https://www.cnet.com/news/wannacry-wannacrypt-uiwix-ransomware-everything-you-need-to-know/.

55

См.: Ariel Ekblaw and Asaf Azaria, “MedRec: Medical Data Management on the Blockchain,” PubPub, September 19, 2016, https://www.pubpub.org/pub/medrec.

56

См.: Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005).

57

См.: Paul Vigna and Michael J. Casey, The Age of Cryptocurrency (St. Martin’s Press, 2015), pp. 57–60.

58

См.: Timothy C. May, “The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto,” https://www.activism.net/cypherpunk/crypto-anarchy.html.

59

Подробный анализ проекта Xanadu и причин его краха можно найти здесь: “The Curse of Xanadu,” Wired, June 1, 2015, https://www.wired.com/1995/06/xanadu/.

60

См.: Don Tapscott and Alex Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology behind Bitcoin Is Changing Money, Business and the World (Portfolio, 2016), p. 5.

61

См.: Lawrence Lessig, “Code Is Law: On Liberty in Cyberspace,” Harvard Magazine, January 1, 2000, http://harvardmagazine.com/2000/01/code-is-law-html.

62

См.: C. G. Jung, The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche (Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Vol. 8) (Princeton University Press, 1970, 2nd edition), p. 325.

63

См.: Emin Gun Sirer, “Caution: The DAO Can Turn Into a Natura lly-Arising Ponzi,” Hacking, Distributed, June 13, 2016, http://hackingdistributed.com/2016/06/13/the-dao-can-turn-into-a-naturally-arising-ponzi/ и Drew Hinkes, “A Legal Analysis of the DAO Exploit and Possible Investor Rights,” Bitcoin Magazine, June 21, 2016, https://bitcoinmagazine.com/articles/a-legal-analysis-of-the-dao-exploit-and-possible-investor-rights-1466524659/.

64

Онлайн-версия документов была удалена, однако основные положения можно прочесть здесь: https://www.reddit.com/r/ethereum/comments/4oo0ql/the_dao_terms_and_conditions/.

65

См.: Emin Gun Sirer, “Thoughts on The DAO Hack,” Hacking, Distributed, June 17, 2016, http://hackingdistributed.com/2016/06/17/thoughts-on-the-dao-hack/.

66

См.: Preston Byrne, “#THEDAO: Broken, but worth fixing,” May 17, 2016, https://prestonbyrne.com/2016/05/17/thedao-dont-walk-away-restructure/.

67

См.: “SEC Issues Investigative Report Concluding DAO Tokens, a Digital Asset, Were Securities,” U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, July 25, 2017, https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2017-131.

68

Все криптовалюты, которые представляют собой альтернативу биткоину. Прим. ред.

69

Подробную техническую информацию об устройстве сети Биткоин можно найти здесь: Andreas M. Antonopoulos, Mastering Bitcoin: Un-locking Digital Cryptocurrencies (O’Reilly Media, 2014).

70

См.: “Visa Inc. Over view,” Visa, April 2017, https://usa.visa.com/dam/VCOM/download/corporate/media/visanet-technology/visa-net-fact-sheet.pdf.

71

См.: Paul Vigna, “Why You Won’t Be Buying a Coffee with Bitcoin Anytime Soon,” The Wall Street Journal, July 2, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-you-wont-be-buying-a-coffee-with-bitcoin-anytime-soon-1498996800#.

72

В интервью Майклу Кейси, Нью-Йорк, сентябрь 2016 года.

73

Первые разработки и исходный код можно найти по адресу: https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0141.mediawiki.

74

См.: Joseph Poon and Thaddeus Dryja, “The Bitcoin Lightning Net work: Scalable Off-Chain Instant Payments,” January 14, 2016, https://lightning.network/lightning-network-paper.pdf.

75

См.: Laura Shin, “Is This Massive Power Struggle About to Blow Up Bitcoin?” Forbes, March 21, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2017/03/21/is-this-massive-power-struggle-about-to-blow-up-bitcoin/#9872e4873250.

76

Cм.: “Bitcoin Scaling Agreement at Consensus 2017,” Digital Currency Group, Medium, May 23, 2017, https://medium.com/@DCGco/bitcoin-scaling-agreement-at-consensus-2017-133521fe9a77.

77

См.: Vitalik Buterin, “Ethereum White Paper: A Next Generation Smart Contract & Decentralized Application Platform,” http://blockchainlab.com/pdf/Ethereum_white_paper-a_next_generation_smart_contract_and_decentralized_application_platform-vitalik-buterin.pdf.

78

См.: “An Ode to the Ethereum Community,” Steemit, October 2016, https://steemit.com/ethereum/@owaisted/an-ode-to-the-ethereum-community.

79

В интервью Майклу Кейси, Майами, 26 января 2014 года.

80

См.: “$30 Million: Ether Reported Stolen Due to Parity Wallet Breach,” CoinDesk, July 19, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/30-million-ether-reported-stolen-parity-wallet-breach/.

81

См.: “The History of Ethereum,” http://www.ethdocs.org/en/latest/introduction/history-of-ethereum.html#the-ethereum-foundation-and-the-ether-presale.

82

См.: Joseph Poon and Vitalik Buterin, “Plasma: Scalable Autonomous Smart Contracts,” August 11, 2017, http://plasma.io/plasma.pdf.

83

Презентация, записанная группой Triangle Bitcoin & Business Meetup, 4 апреля 2017 года, доступна на YouTube по адресу https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZu4u_5L0l8.

84

Комментаторы на одном из форумов подметили, что «чистые» монеты торговались примерно на 3,5 процента дороже остальных. См.: “US Marshalls to Auction off 29,656 bitcoins” at https://texags.com/forums/16/topics/2488176.

85

См.: Robert Hackett, “Big Business Giants from Microsoft to J.P. Morgan Are Getting behind Ethereum,” Fortune, February 27, 2017, http://fortune.com/2017/02/28/ethereum-jpmorgan-microsoft-alliance/.

86

См.: James Mosher, “Initial Coin Offerings Going Way beyond Small Change,” American Institute for Economic Research, July 26, 2017, https://www.aier.org/research/initial-coin-offerings-going-way-beyond-small-change.

87

См. интервью с Йеном Григгом: “Millions of Transactions Per Second on EOS.IO Blockchain | Interview Ian Grigg of Block.One,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UC6RYwYPnpU.

88

Интервью CEO Tezos Кэтлин Брейтман и СТО Артура Брейтмана Майклу Кейси, 29 июня 2017 года.

89

Некоторые части этой главы взяты из отчета, написанного Майклом Кейси для научно-исследовательского института Blockchain Research Ins Institute (BRI) в сентябре 2017 года. Все фрагменты текста приводятся с разрешения правообладателя.

90

См.: Jon Russell, “Former Mozilla CEO Raises $35M in under 30 Seconds for His Browser Startup Brave,” TechCrunch, June 1, 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/06/01/brave-ico-35-million-30-seconds-brendan-eich/.

91

По данным портала Coindesk: https://www.coindesk.com/ico-tracker/.

92

См.: Rob Leathern, “Carriers Are Making More from Mobile Ads Than Publishers Are,” Medium, October 4, 2015, https://medium.com/@robleathern/carriers-are-making-more-from-mobile-ads-than-publishers-are-d5d3c0827b39.

93

См.: Margaret Boland, “Cyber Criminals Are Stealing Billions from the Ad Industry Each Year,” Business Insider, May 28, 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/the-ad-fraud-report-bot-traffic-2016-3.

94

Данные приводятся по: “Basic Asset Token (BAT): Blockchain Based Digital Advertising,” May 29, 2017, p. 9, https://basicattentiontoken.org/BasicAttentionTokenWhitePaper-4.pdf.

95

Данные приводятся по: “Basic Asset Token (BAT): Blockchain Based Digital Advertising,” May 29, 2017, p. 9, https://basicattentiontoken.org/BasicAttentionTokenWhitePaper-4.pdf.

96

См.: Garrett Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science, December 13, 1968, 162 (3859): pp. 1243–1248.

97

См.: “The World’s Most Valuable Resource Is No Longer Oil, But Data,” The Economist, May 6, 2017, https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21721656-data-economy-demands-new-approach-antitrust-rules-worlds-most-valuable-resource.

98

См.: Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner, Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything (William Morrow, 2005).

99

Согласно данным, опубликованным на сайте компании: https://gamecredits.com/.

100

Телефонное интервью Майклу Кейси, 29 июня 2017 года.

101

В число критиков входил и основатель Эфириума Виталик Бутерин: https://twitter.com/VitalikButerin/status/869972830191984641.

102

См., например: Dustin Byington, “Why We Need a Cap on Every ICO — Looking at You Tezos,” Medium, May 7, 2017, https://medium.com/@dustin_byington/why-we-need-a-cap-on-every-ico-looking-at-you-tezos-90d412f34b88.

103

См.: Michael del Castillo, “Why Brave’s $35 Million ICO May Not Be Enough for a High-Tech Hiring Spree,” CoinDesk, July 12, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/braves-35-million-ico-may-not-enough-high-tech-hiring-spree/.

104

См.: Pete Rizzo, “Ethereum: Bitcoin Price Decline Created $9 Million Funding Shortfall,” CoinDesk, September 28, 2015, https://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-bitcoin-decline-9-million-funding-shortfall/.

105

См.: Paul Vigna, “Chiefless Company Rakes in More Than $100 Million,” The Wall Street Journal, May 16, 2016, https://www.wsj.com/articles/chiefless-company-rakes-in-more-than-100-million-1463399393.

106

См.: Roger Aitken, “Fintech Golem’s ‘Airbnb’ For Computing Crowdsale Scores $8.6M in Minutes,” Forbes, November 12, 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/rogeraitken/2016/11/12/fintech-golems-airbnb-for-computing-crowdsale-scores-8-6m-in-minutes/#324579c73583.

107

См.: Alyssa Hertig, “ICO Insanity? $300 Million Gnosis Valuation Sparks Market Reaction,” CoinDesk, April 25, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-ico-irrationality-300-million-gnosis-valuation-sparks-market-concerns/.

108

Телефонное интервью Полу Винья, 29 июня 2017 года.

109

См.: https://www.coindesk.com/ico-tracker/.

110

См.: Paul Vigna, “How a Bitcoin Clone Helped a Company Raise $12 Million in 12 Minutes,” The Wall Street Journal, May 17, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-a-bitcoin-clone-helped-a-company-raise-12-million-in-12-minutes-1495018802?tesla=y&mod=e2tw.

111

Телефонное интервью Майклу Кейси, 22 июня 2017 года.

112

См.: Laura Shin, “Crypto Boom: 15 New Hedge Funds Want In on 84,000 % Returns,” Forbes, July 12, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2017/07/12/crypto-boom-15-new-hedge-funds-want-in-on-84000-returns/#40c3d1aa416a.

113

См.: Stan Higgins, Alex Sunnarborg, and Pete Rizzo, “$150 Million: Tim Draper-Backed Bancor Completes Largest-Ever ICO,” CoinDesk, June 12, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/150-million-tim-draper-backed-bancor-completes-largest-ever-ico/.

114

См.: Paul Vigna, “Forget an IPO, Coin Offerings Are New Road to Startup Riches,” The Wall Street Journal, July 7, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/forget-an-ipo-coin-offerings-are-new-road-to-startup-riches-1499425200.

115

См.: Arthur Breitman, “The Path Forward: A letter from Arthur & Kathleen Breitman to the Tezos community,” Medium, October 18, 2017, https://medium.com/@arthurb/the-path-forward-eb2e6f63be67.

116

См.: Anna Irrera, Steve Stecklow and Brenna Hughes Neghaiwi, “Special Report: Backroom battle imperils $230 million cryptocurrency venture,” Reuters, October 18, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bitcoin-funding-tezos-specialreport/special-report-backroom-battle-imperils-230-million-cryptocurrency-venture — idUSKBN1CN35K; Paul Vigna, “Tezos Raised $232 Million in a Hot Coin Offering, Then a Fight Broke Out,” The Wall Street Journal, October 19, 2017; https://www.wsj.com/articles/tezos-raised-232-million-in-a-hot-coin-offering-then-a-fight-broke-out-1508354704; Jeff John Roberts, “Tezos Rebuffs Rumors of SEC Probe Into $232 Million Crypto ICO,” Fortune, October 28, 2017, http://fortune.com/2017/10/28/tezos-sec/; Chloe Cornish, “Acrimony over $232m ICO set to intensify regulatory scrutiny,” Financial Times, October 26, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/fcb16026-b45a-11e7-aa26-bb002965bce8.

117

См.: Anna Irrera, Steve Stecklow and Brenna Hughes Neghaiwi, “Special Report: Backroom battle imperils $230 million cryptocurrency venture,” Reuters, October 18, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bitcoin-funding-tezos-specialreport/special-report-backroom-battle-imperils-230-million-cryptocurrency-venture — idUSKBN1CN35K; Paul Vigna, “Tezos Raised $232 Million in a Hot Coin Offering, Then a Fight Broke Out,” The Wall Street Journal, October 19, 2017; https://www.wsj.com/articles/tezos-raised-232-million-in-a-hot-coin-offering-then-a-fight-broke-out-1508354704; Jeff John Roberts, “Tezos Rebuffs Rumors of SEC Probe Into $232 Million Crypto ICO,” Fortune, October 28, 2017, http://fortune.com/2017/10/28/tezos-sec/; Chloe Cornish, “Acrimony over $232m ICO set to intensify regulatory scrutiny,” Financial Times, October 26, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/fcb16026-b45a-11e7-aa26-bb002965bce8.

118

См.: Stan Higgins, “China’s Crypto Ex-changes Yank Token Listings amid ICO Ban Fallout,” CoinDesk, September 6, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/chinas-exchanges-yank-token-listings-ico-crackdown/.

119

См.: “SEC Issues Investigative Report Concluding DAO Tokens, a Digital Asset, Were Securities,” U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, July 25, 2017, https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2017-131.

120

Телефонное интервью Майклу Кейси, 26 июня 2017 года.

121

См.: Stan Higgins, “$200 Million in 60 Minutes: Filecoin ICO Rockets to Record Amid Tech Issues,” CoinDesk, August 10, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/200-million-60-minutes-filecoin-ico-rockets-record-amid-tech-issues/.

122

См.: Fred Wilson, “The Golden Age of Open Protcols,” AVC, July 21, 2016, http://avc.com/2016/07/the-golden-age-of-open-protocols/.

123

В интервью Майклу Кейси, 23 марта 2017 года.

124

См.: https://interledger.org/.

125

См.: Jae Kwon and Ethan Buchman, “Cosmos: A Net work of Distributed Ledgers,” https://github.com/cosmos/cosmos/blob/master/WHITEPAPER.md.

126

Интервью Майклу Кейси, Гейдельберг, Германия, 19 июня 2016 года.

127

См.: https://tokenstars.com/.

128

См.: Cade Metz, “Forget Bitcoin. The Blockchain Could Reveal What’s True Today and Tomorrow,” Wired, March 22, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2017/03/forget-bitcoin-blockchain-reveal-whats-true-today-tomorrow/.

129

Брошюра с проектом была показана Майклу Кейси 8 августа 2017 года.

130

См.: Klaus Schwab, The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Crown, 2017).

131

См.: Bruce Schneier, “The Internet of Things Will Turn Large-Scale Hacks into Real World Disasters,” Mother-board, July 25, 2016, https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/qkjzwp/the-internet-of-things-will-cause-the-first-ever-large-scale-internet-disaster.

132

См.: Veena Pureswaran and Paul Brody, “Device Democracy: Saving the Future of the Internet of Things,” September 2014, http://www-01.ibm.com/common/ssi/cgi-bin/ssialias?htmlfid=GBE03620USEN.

133

См.: Andy Greenberg, “This ‘Demonically Clever’ Backdoor Hides in a Tiny Slice of a Computer Chip,” Wired, June 1, 2016, https://www.wired.com/2016/06/demonically-clever-backdoor-hides-inside-computer-chip/.

134

Cм.: “Trusted Computing: Promise and Risk,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, October 1, 2003. https://www.eff.org/wp/trusted-computing-promise-and-risk.

135

Подробнее об этом см.: “Hyperledger Sawtooth documentation,” https://intelledger.github.io/.

136

Daniel Palmer, “Broken Hash Crash? IOTA’s Price Keeps Dropping on Tech Critique,” CoinDesk, September 8, 2017, https://www.coindesk.com/broken-hash-function-iota-price-drops-on-tech-critique/.

137

См. образцы комментариев здесь: https://www.reddit.com/r/Iota/comments/6z87sw/all_of_this_fud_is_a_good_sign/?st=j8ks3khu&sh=8be3c663.

138

Limo, “Competitors and Amy Castor: A Tale on Reputation Usage and a Campaign to Discredit IOTA,” The Tangler, September 13, 2017, http://www.tangleblog.com/2017/09/13/competitors-amy-castor-tale-reputation-usage-discredit-campaign/.

139

Misty Wind, “IOTA Cofounder Sergey Ivancheglo aka Come-from-Beyond’s Responses to the Ongoing FUD about So Called ‘Vulnerabilities’ in IOTA Code Which Never Really Existed,” Medium, September 10, 2017, https://medium.com/@misty-wind/iota-cofounder-sergey-ivancheglo-aka-come-from-beyonds-responses-to-the-ongoing-fud-about-so-ea3afd51a79b.

140

См.: https://www.trusted-iot.org/

141

Jamie Redman, “Dept of Homeland Security Awards $200K to Factom for ID System,” Bitcoin, June 18, 2016, https://news.bitcoin.com/dhs-awards-200k-factom/.

142

G. Ananthakrishnan, “Modi Asks Rich Nations to Cut Emissions, Share Carbon Space with Poor,” The Hindu, December 1, 2015, http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/cop21-paris-climate-conference-narendra-modi-cautions-against-unilateral-steps-in-combating-climate-change/article7933873.ece.

143

Закон Мура — эмпирическое наблюдение, сделанное Гордоном Муром, одним из основателей Intel, согласно которому количество транзисторов, размещаемых на кристалле интегральной схемы, удваивается каждые 24 месяца. Прим. ред.

144

Katie Fehrenbacher, “A Jaw-Dropping World Record Solar Price Was Just Bid in Abu Dhabi,” Fortune, September 19, 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/09/19/world-record-solar-price-abu-dhabi/.

145

Jeff St. John, “How Microgrids Helped Weather Hurricane Sandy,” Greentech Media, November 20, 2012, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-microgrids-helped-weather-hurricane-sandy.

146

Набросок плана был показан Майклу Кейси.

147

“Energy Companies Join Forces with Rocky Mountain Institute and Grid Singularity to Launch Global Blockchain Initiative for Energy,” March 8, 2017, Rocky Mountain Institute, https://www.rmi.org/about/news-and-press/press-release-energy-web-foundation-launch/.

148

Katie Little, “One Year after Chipotle’s E. coli crisis, Chain Still Struggling,” CNBC.com, October 31, 2016 https://www.cnbc.com/2016/10/31/one-year-after-chipotles-e-coli-crisis-chain-still-struggling.html.

149

www.provenance.org

150

Robert Hackett, “Walmart and IBM Are Partnering to Put Chinese Pork on a Blockchain,” Fortune, October 19, 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/10/19/walmart-ibm-blockchain-china-pork/.

151

Pete Rizzo, “World’s Largest Mining Company to Use Blockchain for Supply Chain,” CoinDesk, September 23, 2016, https://www.coindesk.com/bhp-billiton-blockchain-mining-company-supply-chain/.

152

Gian Volpicelli, “How the Blockchain Is Helping Stop the Spread of Conflict Diamonds,” Wired UK, February 15, 2017, http://www.wired.co.uk/article/blockchain-conflict-diamonds-everledger.

153

В электронном письме Майклу Кейси, 2 марта 2017 года.

154

Lockheed Martin Contracts Guardtime Federal for Innovative Cyber Technology,” Lockheed Martin, April 27, 2017, http://news.lockheedmartin.com/2017-04-27-Lockheed-Martin-Contracts-Guardtime-Federal-for-Innovative-Cyber-Technology.

155

По итогам встречи авторов книги с главами компании 22 марта 2017 года.

156

“Reinventing Construction: A Route to Higher Productivity,” McKinsey Global Institute, February 2017, https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Industries/Capital%20Projects%20and%20Infrastructure/Our%20Insights/Reinventing%20construction%20through%20a%20productivity%20revolution/MGI-Reinventing-Construction-Executive-summary.ashx.

157

Kim S. Nash and Rachael King, “IBM Set to Launch One of the Largest Blockchain Implementations to Date,” The Wall Street Journal, July 29, 2016, https://blogs.wsj.com/cio/2016/07/29/ibm-set-to-launch-one-of-the-largest-blockchain-implementations-to-date/.

158

“Standard Chartered Pilots Blockchain Trade Finance Tool,” PYMNTS.com, April 3, 2017, https://www.pymnts.com/news/b2b-payments/2017/standard-chartered-hong-kong-blockchain-distributed-ledger-trade-finance-banking-pilot-blockchain-hong-kong/.

159

Andrew Sawers, “Foxconn Uses Blockchain for New SCF Platform after $6.5m Pilot,” http://www.scfbriefing.com/foxconn-launches-scf-blockchain-platform/.

160

Michael J. Casey and Pindar Wong, “Global Supply Chains Are About to Get Better, Thanks to Blockchain,” Harvard Business Review, March 13, 2017, https://hbr.org/2017/03/global-supply-chains-are-about-to-get-better-thanks-to-blockchain.

161

https://www.beltandroadblockchain.org/.

162

“China’s One Belt, One Road: Will It Reshape Global Trade?” Podcast Transcript, July 2016, McKinsey.com, https://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/china/chinas-one-belt-one-road-will-it-reshape-global-trade.

163

“Bitcoin Open Source Imple-mentation of P2P currency,” P2P Foundation, February 11, 2009, http://p2pfoundation.ning.com/forum/topics/bitcoin-open-source.

164

Karen Weise, “Tallying the Full Cost of the Financial Crisis,” Bloomberg, September 14, 2012, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-09-14/tallying-the-full-cost-of-the-financial-crisis.

165

http://www.dtcc.com/charts/daily-total-us-treasury-trade-fails.

166

Mike Hearn, “The Resolution of the Bitcoin Experiment,” Medium, January 14, 2016, https://blog.plan99.net/the-resolution-of-the-bitcoin-experiment-dabb30201f7.

167

Michael Lewis, The Big Short: Inside the Doomsday Machine (Norton, 2010).

168

Lawrence Lewitinn, “How Buffett Used ‘Financial Weapons of Mass Destruction’ to Make Billions of Dollars,” Yahoo! Finance, https://finance.yahoo.com/news/how-buffett-used-financial-weapons-of-mass-destruction-to-make-billions-of-dollars-175922498.html.

169

В электронном письме Майклу Кейси, 18 сентября 2016 года.

170

Tim Swanson, “Settlement Risks Involving Public Blockchains,” Tabbforum.com, December 30, 2016, http://tabbforum.com/opinions/settlement-risks-involving-public-blockchains.

171

“Blockchain and Central Banks: A Tour de Table Part II,” Finextra, January 9, 2017. https://www.finextra.com/blogposting/13532/blockchain-and-central-banks-a-tour-de-table-part-ii.

172

В электронном письме Майклу Кейси, 1 сентября 2017 года.

173

John Barrdear and Michael Kumhoff, “Staff Working Paper No. 605: The Macroeconomics of Central Bank Issued Digital Currencies,” Bank of England, July 2016, http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/research/Documents/workingpapers/2016/swp605.pdf.

174

http://hyperledger.org/about.

175

На конференции в Массачусетском технологическом институте 18 апреля 2017 года.

176

В кулуарах офисов DTCC, 28 января 2016 года.

177

“IBM Delivers Blockchain-As-A-Service for Developers; Commits to Making Blockchain Ready for Business,” IBM, February 16, 2016, https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/49029.wss.

178

Jorge Salomón, “El barrio Charrúa, una pequeña Bolivia en el sur de Buenos Aires,” El País, February 12, 2016, http://www.elpaisonline.com/index.php/2013-01-15-14-16-26/sociedad/item/204708-el-barrio-charrua-una-pequena-bolivia-en-el-sur-de-buenos-aires.

179

Hernando de Soto, The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else (Basic Books, 2000).

180

Lori London, “The Top 10 Un-banked and Underbanked Cities,” goEBT, March 29, 2017, https://blog.goebt.com/the-top-10-unbanked-and-underbanked-cities.

181

Global Findex Database, World Bank, 2014, http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/globalfindex.

182

Sustainable Development Goals, United Nations, http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/.

183

Consultative Group to Assist the Poor, “2014 Saw $31 Billion in International Funding for Financial Inclusion,” CGAP, January 19, 2016, http://www.cgap.org/news/2014-saw-31-billion-international-funding-financial-inclusion.

184

Joshua J. Mark, “Cylinder Seals in An-cient Mesopotamia — Their History and Significance,” Ancient History Encyclopedia, December 2, 2015, http://www.ancient.eu/article/846/.

185

David Roodman, “Grameen Bank, Which Pioneered Loans for the Poor, Has Hit a Repayment Snag,” Center for Global Development, February 9, 2010, https://www.cgdev.org/blog/grameen-bank-which-pioneered-loans-poor-has-hit-repayment-snag.

186

Michael J. Casey, “Could the Blockchain Empower the Poor and Unlock Global Growth?” Techonomy, March 7, 2016, http://techonomy.com/2016/03/blockchain-global-growth/.

187

Laura Shin, Forbes, April 21, 2016, “Republic of Georgia to Pilot Land Titling on Blockchain with Economist Hernando De Soto, BitFury,” https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2016/04/21/republic-of-georgia-to-pilot-land-titling-on-blockchain-with-economist-hernando-de-soto-bitfury/#3c381e6144da.

188

“Ubitquity, the Blockchain-Secured Platform for Real Estate Transactions, Partners with US-Based ‘Rising Barn’ for Property Recording,” Ubitquity.io, October 17, 2016, https://www.ubitquity.io/blog/ubitquity_llc_partners_prioritytitle_blockchain_10_17_2016.html.

189

Land Governance Assessment Framework, Draft Final Report, World Bank, September 2015, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLGA/Resources/Sierra_Leone_Final_Draft_Report_Oct12_v2.pdf; Sierra Leone Ministry of Lands, Country Planning and the Environment, “Draft National Land Policy of Sierra Leone,” United Nations Development Programme, August 1, 2015, http://www.sl.undp.org/content/dam/sierraleone/docs/projectdocuments/environment/Land%20Policy%20SL%20151214%20FINAL.pdf.

190

Victoria Louise Lemieux, “Trusting Records: Is Blockchain Technology the Answer?” Records Management Journal 26, no. 2 (2016): 110–139, doi: 10.1108/RMJ-12-2015-0042.

191

“Unleashing the Wealth of Nations,” http://wealthofnations.media.mit.edu/node/2.

192

Детали проекта см. на сайте института: https://www.media.mit.edu/.

193

GSMA’s Mobile Money Deployment Tracker: http://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/m4d-tracker/mobile-money-deployment-tracker.

194

Carol Realini, “Unbanked Consumers Strive for Better Banking Services,” www.carolrealini.com, February 7, 2015, http://www.carolrealini.com/unbanked-consumers-better-banking-services/: Rob Jillo, “Airtel Presses for Share of Safaricom’s M-PESA Platform,” Capital Business, July 3, 2015, http://www.capitalfm.co.ke/business/2015/07/airtel-presses-for-share-of-safaricoms-m-pesa-platform/.

195

https://remittanceprices.worldbank.org/en/corridor/United-States/Jamaica.

196

Laura Shin, “Bitcoin Payments Firm BitPesa Secures Greycroft as Lead Investor for $10 Million Total Funding,” Forbes, August 30, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2017/08/30/bitcoin-payments-firm-bitpesa-secures-greycroft-as-lead-investor-for-10-million-total-funding/#4dfaefb66066.

197

Luke Parker, “Bitcoin Remittances ‘20 percent’ of South Korea-Philippines Corridor,” Brave New Coin, September 14, 2016, https://bravenewcoin.com/news/bitcoin-remittances-20-percent-of-south-korea-philippines-corridor/.

198

New York State Department of Financial Services, New York Codes, Rules, and Regulations, Title 23, Chapter 1, Part 200: Virtual Currencies, http://www.dfs.ny.gov/legal/regulations/adoptions/dfsp200t.pdf.

199

Maria Konnikova, “The Limits of Friendship,” New Yorker, October 7, 2014, https://www.newyorker.com/science/maria-konnikova/social-media-affect-math-dunbar-number-friendships.

200

Mariana Dahan and Alan Gelb, “The Identity Target in the Post-2015 Development Agenda,” World Bank, September 17, 2015. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ict/brief/the-identity-target-in-the-post-2015-development-agenda-connections-note-19.

201

“Trafficking and HIV/AIDS Project,” UNESCO, July 4, 2017, https://bangkok.unesco.org/content/trafficking-and-hivaids-project.

202

Joon Ian Wong, “Microsoft Thinks Blockchain Tech Could Solve One of the Internet’s Toughest Problems: Digital Identities,” Quartz, June 1, 2017, https://qz.com/989761/microsoft-msft-thinks-blockchain-tech-could-solve-one-of-the-internets-toughest-problems-digital-identities/.

203

Jeanette Rodrigues, “India ID Program Wins World Bank Praise Despite ‘Big Brother’ Fears,” Bloomberg, March 15, 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-15/india-id-program-wins-world-bank-praise-amid-big-brother-fears.

204

Sandeep Phuken, “Aadhaar Pay: New App Does Away with Transaction Fee, Debit, Credit Cards,” NDTV, March 8, 2017, http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/aadhaar-pay-new-app-does-away-with-transaction-fee-debit-credit-cards-1667254.

205

Shaun Waterman, “Nasdaq Says Estonia Evoting Pilot Successful,” CyberScoop, January 25, 2017, https://www.cyberscoop.com/nasdaq-estonia-evoting-pilot/.

206

Drew Springall, Travis Finkenauer, Zakir Durumeric, Jason Kitcat, Harri Hursti, Margaret MacAlpine, and J. Alex Halderman, “Security Analysis of the Estonian Internet Voting System,” ACM CCS 2014—21st ACM Conference on Com-puter and Communications Security, November 3–7, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/2660267.2660315.

207

При встрече с Майклом Кейси в Нью-Йорке, июнь 2015 года.

208

David Birch, Identity Is the New Money (London Publishing Partnership, 2004).

209

“A Blueprint for Digital Identity: The Role of Financial Institutions in Building Digital Identity,” World Economic Forum, August 2016, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_Blueprint_for_Digital_Identity.pdf.

210

“Towards an Internet of Trusted Data: A New Framework for Identity and Data Sharing,” August 2016, MIT Connection Science, https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/09/16/mit_rfi_response.pdf.

211

Yorke Rhodes III, “What Does Identity Mean in Today’s Physical and Digital World?” Microsoft.com, https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/blog/what-does-identity-mean-in-today-s-physical-and-digital-world/.

212

Ron Miller, “The Promise of Managing Identity on the Blockchain,” TechCrunch, September 10, 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/09/10/the-promise-of-managing-identity-on-the-blockchain/.

213

Juan Galt, “Andreas Antonopoulos: The Case Against Reputation and Identity Systems,” Bitcoin Magazine, December 19, 2015, https://news.bitcoin.com/andreas-antonopoulos-case-reputation-identity-systems/.

214

Juan Galt, “Andreas Antonopoulos: The Case Against Reputation and Identity Systems,” Bitcoin Magazine, December 19, 2015, https://news.bitcoin.com/andreas-antonopoulos-case-reputation-identity-systems/.

215

Russell Brandon, “Your phone’s biggest vulnerability is your fingerprint,” The Verge, May 2, 2016, http://www.theverge.com/2016/5/2/11540962/iphone-samsung-fingerprint-duplicate-hack-security.

216

Chris Jagers, “Digital Identity and the Blockchain,” Learning Machine Blog, July 16, 2017, https://medium.com/learning-machine-blog/digital-identity-and-the-blockchain-10de0e7d7734.

217

Chris Allen, “The Path to Self-Sovereign Identity,” Life with Alacrity blog, April 25, 2016, http://www.lifewithalacrity.com/2016/04/the-path-to-self-soverereign-identity.html.

218

Marc Andreessen, “Why Software Is Eating the World,” The Wall Street Journal, August 20, 2011, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111903480904576512250915629460.

219

S. Jasanoff, The Ethics of Invention: Technology and the Human Future (W. W. Norton, 2016).

220

Oscar Wilde, “The Soul of Man under Socialism,” First publication in Fortnightly Review, February 1891, p. 292.

221

“Blue Feed, Red Feed: See Liberal Facebook and Conser vative Facebook, Side by Side,” The Wall Street Journal, http://graphics.wsj.com/blue-feed-red-feed/.

222

Craig Silverman and Lawrence Alexander, “How Teens in the Balkans Are Duping Trump Supporters with Fake News,” BuzzFeed, November 3, 2016, https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/how-macedonia-became-a-global-hub-for-pro-trump-misinfo.

223

“State of the Commons,” https://stateof.creativecommons.org/2015/.

224

Robert Hof, “How MetaX Plans to Use Blockchain to Stop Ad Fraud,” Forbes, March 21, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/roberthof/2017/03/21/how-metax-plans-to-use-blockchain-to-stop-ad-fraud/#2e417d0e59da.

225

“Age of Cryptocurrency, Recorded on the Bitcoin Blockchain,” CoinDesk, February 3, 2015, https://www.coindesk.com/age-of-cryptocurrency-bitcoin-blockchain/.

226

В интервью Майклу Кейси, 28 июля 2017 года.

227

“Imogen Heap— Future Music — PART 1/2, London Real,” YouTube channel, December 27, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkLrdRx0F6w.

228

Lance Koonce, “Copyright’s ‘Double Spend’ Problem: Digital First Sales,” Medium, April 27, 2016, https://medium.com/creativeblockchain/copyrights-double-spend-problem-digital-first-sales-f18c586612b9.

229

В телефонном интервью с Майклом Кейси, 25 марта 2017 г.

230

В телефонном интервью с Майклом Кейси, 25 марта 2017 г.

231

Tim Gosselin, “A New Cryptocurrency to Reward Creative Commons Creators,” mediachain.io, March 9, 2017, https://blog.mediachain.io/a-new-cryptocurrency-to-reward-creative-commons-creators-e41e1791c4c0.

232

Sarah Perez, “Spotify Acquires Blockchain Startup Mediachain to Solve Music’s Attribution Problem,” TechCrunch, April 26, 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/04/26/spotify-acquires-blockchain-startup-mediacha in-to-solve-musics-attribution-problem/.

233

Todd Spangler, “Spotify to Pay More Than $20 Million to Music Publishers in Roya lty Pact for ‘Un-matched ’ Songs,” Variety, March 17, 2016, http://variety.com/2016/digital/news/spotify-nmpa-music-publishers-royalties-1201732879/.

234

https://bitnation.co/.

235

Brian Forde, “Hillary Clinton and the Blockchain,” TechCrunch, July 7, 2016, https://techcrunch.com/2016/07/07/hillary-clinton-and-the-blockchain/.

236

Diana Ngo, “Governments, NGOs Consider Neocapita’s Blockchain Pilots for E-Governance,” Bitcoin Magazine, March 31, 2017, https://bitcoinmagazine.com/articles/governments-ngos-consider-neocapitas-blockchain-pilots-e-governance/.

237

Ali Breland, “Lawmakers Introduce the Blockchain Caucus,” The Hill, February 9, 2017, http://thehill.com/policy/technology/318845-lawmakers-introduce-the-blockchain-caucus.

238

Jeff John Roberts, “Companies Can Put Shareholders on a Blockchain Starting Today,” Fortune, August 1, 2017, http://fortune.com/2017/08/01/blockchain-shareholders-law/.

239

Anna Irrera, “Illinois Watchdog First U.S. Regulator to Join Blockchain Consortium R3,” Reuters, March 16, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-blockchain-illinois/illinois-watchdog-first-u-s-regulator-to-join-blockchain-consortium-r3-idUSKBN16N2FN.

240

The Traderman, “Chainanalysis Partners with Europol’s European Cybercrime Centre,” The Merkle, February 22, 2016, https://themerkle.com/chainanalysis-partners-with-europols-european-cybercrime-centre/.

241

Similarly, the UK Financial Conduct Authority’s “sandbox” strategy: Regulatory sandbox details at FCA Innovate: https://www.fca.org.uk/firms/regulatory-sandbox.

242

Yossi Gilad, Rotem Hemo, Silvio Micali, Georgios Vlachos, and Nickolai Zeldovich, “Algorand: Scaling Byzantine Agreements for Cry ptocurrencies,” MIT CSAIL, https://people.csail.mit.edu/nickolai/papers/gilad-algorand-eprint.pdf.

243

“Distributed Ledger Technology: Beyond block chain [sic],” UK Government Office for Science, January 19, 2016.

244

“Conway: Press Secretary Gave ‘Alternative Facts’,” per KellyAnne Conway’s interview with Chuck Todd of NBC News, NBC News, January 22, 2017, https://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/video/conway-press-secretary-gave-alternative-facts-860142147643.