Имитаторы. Как компании заимствуют и перерабатывают чужие идеи [заметки]

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Интервал

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S. P. Schnaars provides numerous case histories of late entrants winning against pioneers. See Schnaars, S. P. 1994. Managing imitation strategies: How late entrants seize markets from pioneers. New York: Free Press.

Connor, C. 2008. Interview with author, October 24.

See, for instance, Schnaars, Managing imitation strategies.

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Diamond, J. 2005. Guns, germs and steel. New York: Norton.

Ibid., 407.

Rosenberg, N. 1976. Perspectives on technology. New York: Cambridge University Press; Rosenberg, N. 1982. Inside the black box: Technology and economics. New York: Cambridge University Press, cited in Schmitz, J. A. 1989. Imitation, entrepreneurship, and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy 97, 3, 721–739; Pennington, A. Y. 2006. Copy that: In business, imitation is more than a form of flattery. Entrepreneur Magazine, March.

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Berg, M. 2002. From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain, The Economic History Review, New Series, 55, 1, 1–30.

Ibid.

From an abstract of Sargent, W. R. 2008. Send Us No More Dragons: Chinese Porcelains and Decorative Arts for the Western Market. Lecture at Ohio State University, October 3.

Westney, E. 1987. Imitation andinnovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns to Meiji Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., and Ratner, H. H. 1993. Cultural learning. Behavioral Brain Sciences 16, 495–552; Zentall, Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms; Hurely, S. 2004. Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech. Philosophical Studies 117, 165–218; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation, 1; Byrne, R. W. 2003. Imitation as behavior parsing. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 358, 1431, 529–536; Zentall, T., and Akins, C. 2001. Imitation in animals: Evidence, function and mechanisms. In Avian visual cognition, ed. R. G. Cook. Comparative Cognition Press [online], 2001, http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/akins/; Brown, J. H., and Kodric-Brown, A. 1979. Convergence, competition and mimicry in a temperate community of hummingbird-pollinated flowers. Ecology 60, 5, 1022–1035; W. H. L. 1870. Imitation. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1, 11, 43.

Bonner, J. T. 1980. The evolution of cultures in animals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Sirot, E. 2001. Mate-choice copying by females: The advantages of a prudent strategy. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 14, 418–423; Losey, G. S., Stanton, F. G., Tlecky, Т. M., and Tyler, W. L. 1986. Copying others: an evolutionary stable strategy for mate choice: a model. American Naturalist 128, 5, 653–664.

Ludlam, T. 2008. Interview with author, May 8.

Harley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation; Blackmore, S. 1999. The тете machine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Zentall, Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms; Alex the African Grey. 2007. Economist, September 22, 103; Iacoboni, M. 2008. Mirroring people. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Yando, R., Seitz, V., and Zigler, E. Imitation: A developmental perspective; Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; for a sociological view, see Goffman, E. 1959. The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday; Michael Tomasello, as cited in Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation; Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Meltzoff, A., and Moore, M. K. 1994. Imitation, memory and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development 17, 83–99; Wohlschlager, A., Gattis, M., and Bekkering, H. 2003. Action generated and action perception in imitation: An instance of the ideomotor principle. Philosophical Transactions Review Society of London B358, 501–515, cited in Gfallese, V. 2003. The manifold nature of interpersonal relations: The quest for a common mechanism. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 358, 1431, 517–528.

Yando, Seitz, and Zigler, Imitation: A developmental perspective; Byrne, R. W. 2005. Social cognition: imitation, imitation, imitation. Current Biology 15, 13, R4985–00; Whiten, A. 2005. The imitative correspondence problem: Solved or sidestepped? In Perspectives on imitation, eds. Hurley and Chater, 220; Harley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation, 2; Byrne, Imitation as behavior parsing; Rizzolatti, G., and Sinigaglia, C. 2008. Mirrors in the brain: How our minds share actions and emotions. Trans. F. Anderson. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gombrich, E. H. 2002. Art and illusion: A study in the psychology of pictorial representation. New York: Phaidon; Danto, A. C. 1981. The transfiguration of the commonplace: A philosophy of art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; Olson, E. 1952. The poetic method of Aristotle. In English Institute Essays, ed. A. S. Downer. New York: English Institute, which notes that Aristotle was more appreciative of imitation; Jenkins, I. 1942. Imitation and expression in art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 2, 5, 42–52; Harkness, B. 1954. Imitation and theme. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 12, 4, 499–508; Coomaraswamy, A. K. 1945. Imitation, expression, and participation. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 3, 11/12, 62–72, cite on 64.

Child, A. 1952. History as imitation. Philosophical Quarterly 2, 8 (July), 193–207.

Berg, M. 2002. From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain.

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Byrne, Imitation as behavior parsing; Byrne, Social cognition: Imitation, imitation, imitation; Meltzoff, A. N., and Prinz, W., eds., 2002. The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Chaminade, T. J., Grezes, J., and Meltzoff, J. 2002. A PET exploration of neural mechanisms involved in reciprocal imitation. Neurolmage 15, 265–272; Kymissis, E., and Poulson, C. L. 1990. The history of imitation in learning theory; the language acquisition process. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 54, 113–127; Hurely, Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech; Yando, Seitz, and Zigler, Imitation: A developmental perspective.

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Alchian, A. A. 1977. Economic forces at work. Indianapolis: Liberty Press; Bikchandani, S., Hirschleifer, D., and Welch, I. 1992. A theory of fads, fashion, custom and cultural change as informational cascades. Journal of Political Economy 100, 5, 992–1026; К. H. Schlag, Why imitate, and if so, how. Journal of Economic Theory 78, 130–156.

Kandori, M. G., Mailath, G., and Rob, R. 1993. Learning, mutation, and long run equilibria in games. Econometrica 61, 29–56; Gregoire, P., and Robson, A. 2003. Imitation, group selection, and cooperation. International Game Theory Review 5, 3, 229–247; De Marchi, N., and Van Miegroet, H. J. Ingenuity, preference and the pricing of pictures: The Smith-Reynolds connection. In Economic engagements with art, eds. D. De Marchi and С. C. W. Goodwin. Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 379–412, cited in Berg, From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain.

Schumpeter, J. 1934. The theory of economic development. Boston: Harvard University Press, 133.

Ibid.

Mata, J., and Portugal, P. 1994. Life duration of new firms. Journal of Industrial Economics XLII, 3, 227–245; Geroski, P. A. 1994. Market structure, corporate performance and innovative activity. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Cooper, R. G. 1979. The dimensions of new product success and failure. Journal of Marketing 43, 93–103; Dillon, W. R., Calantore, R., and Worthing, P. 1979. The new product problem: An approach to investigating product failures. Management Science 25, 1184–1196; Glazer, A. 1985. The advantage of being first. American Economic Review 75, 3, 473–480; Bryman, A. 1997. Animating the pioneer versus late entrant debate: An historical case study. Journal of Management Studies 34, 3, 415–438; Golder, P. N., and Tellis, G. J. 1993. Pioneer advantage: Marketing logic or marketing legend? Journal of Marketing Research 30, 158–170; Mitchell, W. 1991. Dual clocks: Entry order influences on incumbent and newcomer market share and survival when specialized assets retain their value. Strategic Management Journal 12, 85–100; Carpenter, G. S., and Nakamoto, K. 1989. Consumer preference formation and pioneering advantage. Journal of Marketing Research 26, 285–298; Schmalensee, R. 1982. Product differentiation advantages of pioneering brands. American Economic Review 72, 3, 349–365; Kerin, R. A., Varadarajan, P. R., and Peterson, R. A. 1992. First mover advantage: A synthesis, conceptual framework, and research propositions. Journal of Marketing 56, 33–52, cited in Cho, D. S., Kim, D. J., and Rhee, D. K. 1998. Latecomer strategies: Evidence from the semiconductor industry in Japan and Korea. Organization Science 9, 4, 489–505; Rogers, E. M. 1995. Diffusion of innovations. New York: The Free Press; Makadok, R. 1998. Can first-mover and early-mover advantages be sustained in an industry with low barriers to entry/imitation? Strategic Management Journal 19, 983–996; Barro, R. J., and Sala-I — Martin, X. 1997. Technological diffusion, convergence, and growth. Journal of Economic Growth 2, 1–27; Robinson, W. T., Kalyanaram, G., and Urban, G. L. 1994. First-mover advantages from pioneering new markets: A survey of empirical evidence. Review of Industrial Organization 9, 1–23; Suarez, F. F., and Lanzolla, G. 2007. The role of environmental dynamics in building a first mover advantage theory. Academy of Management Review 32, 2, 377–392; Szymanski, D. M., Kroff, M. W., and Troy, L. 2007. Innovativeness and new product success: Insights from the cumulative evidence. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Sciences 35, p. 49.

McEvily, S., and Chakravarty, B. 2002. The persistence of knowledge-based advantage: An empirical test for product performance and technological knowledge. Strategic Management Journal 23, 285–305, cited in Lewin, A., and Massini, S. 2003. Innovators and imitators: Organizational reference groups and adoption of organizational routines. Paper presented at the Druid Summer Conference on Creating, Sharing and Transferring Knowledge, Copenhagen, June 12–14, p. 14; Bayus, B. L., Erickson, G., and Jacobson, R. 2003. The financial rewards of new product introductions in the personal computer industry. Management Science 49, 2, 197–210.

Rosenberg, N. 1976. Plrspectives on technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Mansfield, E., Schwartz, M., and Wagner, S. 1981. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study. Economic Journal 91 (December), 907–918.

Teece, D. J. 1986. Profiting from technological innovation: Implications for integration, collaboration, licensing and public policy. In The competitive challenge: Strategies for industrial innovation and renewal, ed. D. J. Teece. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

Cho, H. H., Jeong, В., and Lim, S. 2005. The digital conqueror: Samsung Electronics. Seoul: Maeil Economics News Press (in Korean), cited in Chang, S. J. 2008. Sony vs. Samsung: The inside story of the electronics giants’ battle for global supremacy. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Nowell, L. 2009. Interview with author, January 12.

Levitt, T. 1966. Innovation and imitation. Harvard Business Review, September — October, 63–70.

Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation.

Comin, D., and Hobijn, B. 2003. Cross-country technology adoption: Maying the theories face the facts. Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports no. 169. Washington, DC: Federal Reserve Bank.

Rosenberg, N., and Steinmueller, W. E. 1988. Why are Americans such poor imitators? Papers and proceedings of the 100th Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association, 229–234.

Ibid.; Dumaine, B. 1991. Closing the innovation gap. Fortune, December 2, cited in Arayama, Y., and Mourdoukoutas, P. 1999. China against herself: Innovation or imitation in global business? Westport, CT: Quorum.

OECD. 1968. Gaps in technology: General report. Paris: OECD, 14, cited in B. Godin, The rise of innovation surveys: Measuring a fuzzy concept. Project on the History of Sociology of STI Statistics, Working Paper No. 16. London: Routledge.

Ibid.; Freeman, C. 1965. Research and development in electronic capital goods. National Institute of Economic Review 14 (November), 40–97. Also cited by Usselman, S. W. 1993. IBM and its imitators. Business and Economic History 22, 2, p. 17.

Diamond, J. 2005 (1997). Guns, germs and steel. New York: Norton; Westney, D. E. 1987. Imitation and innovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns in Meiji Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Bonabeau, E. 2004. The perils of the imitation age. Harvard Business Review, June, 45–54.

O’Brien, J. 2008. Interview with author, December 16.

Dunfield, S. 2008. Interview with author, November 18.

Diamond, Guns, germs and steel.

Data Monitor. 2008. Toys and games in the United States: Industry profile. 0072–0778, January. Table 4, 12.

The World Bank. 2008. Global economic prospects 2008: Technology diffusion in the developing world. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

Kohrt, C. 2008. Interview with author, March 5.

Diamond, Guns, germs and steel.

Comin, D., and Hobijn, B. 2003. Cross-country technology adoption: Making the theories face the facts. Staff Report No. 169, Federal Reserve Bank of New York; Yorgaso, D. R. 2007. Research and development activities of US multinational companies. Survey of Current Business, March 2007.

Zeng, M., and Williamson, P. J. 2007. Dragons at your door: How Chinese companies will disrupt global competition. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Lawton, C., Kane, Y. I., and Dean, J. 2008. US upstart takes on TV giants in price wars. Wall Street Journal, April 15, Al; Shenkar, O. 2004. The Chinese century. Philadelphia: Wharton School Publishing.

Aeppel, T. 2008. US shoe factory finds supplies are Achilles’ heel. Wall Street Journal, March 3, B1.

Karhu, K., Taipale, O., and Smolander, K. 2007. Outsourcing and knowledge management in software testing. 11th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering, April 2–3, Keele University, Staffordshire, U. K.

Balconi, M. 2002. Tacitness, codification of technological knowledge and the organization of industry. Research Policy 31, 357–379; Hurley, S., and Chater, N., eds. 2007. Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science. Cambridge, MA: MIT; Cowan, R., and Foray, D. 1997. The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge. Industrial and Corporate Change 6, 3, p. 611; Cowan, R., David, P. A., and Foray, D. 2000. The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness. Industrial and Corporate Change 9, 2, 211–253; Neisser, U. 1963. The imitation of man by machine. Science 139, 3551, 193–197.

Daley, C. 2008. Interview with author, November 18.

Hurley and Chater, eds., Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science.

Cowan and Foray, The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge.

Ibid.

Byron, E. 2008. A new odd couple: Google, P&G, swap workers to spur innovation. Wall Street Journal, November 18, 1.

Cowan and Foray, The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge, 611.

Cowan, David, and Foray, The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness.

100

Neisser, The imitation of man by machine. There is a common confusion in the strategy literature between tacit and complex knowledge. Complex knowledge is especially amenable to codification, and in fact its very complexity requires codification as a way to deal with multiple variables and relationships.

101

Ludlam, T. 2008. Interview with author, May 8.

102

Diamond, Guns, germs and steel, 407.

103

Cho, D. S., Kim, D. J., and Rhee, D. K. 1998. Latecomer strategies: Evidence from the semiconductor industry in Japan and Korea. Organization Science 9, 4, 489–505.

104

Agarwal, R., and Gort, M. 2001. First-mover advantage and the speed of competitive entry, 1887–1986. Journal of Law and Economics XLIV, 161–177.

105

Diamond, Guns, germs and steel; Westney, Imitation and innovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns in Meiji Japan; Cho, Kim, and Rhee. Latecomer strategies; Agarwal and Gort. First-mover advantage and the speed of competitive entry, 1887–1986; Bryman, A. 1997. Animating the pioneer versus late entrant debate: An historical case study. Journal of Management Studies 34, 3, 415–438.

106

Collins, H. M. 1974. The TEA set: Tacit knowledge in scientific networks. Science Studies 4, 165–186, cited in Cowan, David, and Foray, The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness.

107

2007 Generics Report. 2007. Drug Store News, www.drugstore news.com, February 12.

108

All together now. 2008. Economist, July 26.

109

Jargon, J., and Zimmerman, A. 2009. Brand-name food makers woo retailers with displays. Wall Street Journal (online), February 17, citing the Private Label Manufacturers Association and ACNielsen; Europe eats on the cheap. 2008. Wall Street Journal, September 30, B1; ACNielsen. 2005. The power of private label 2005: A review of growth trends around the world. New York: ACNielsen.

110

Mansfield, E., Schwartz, M., and Wagner, S. 1981. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study. Economic Journal 91 (December), 907–918; Levin, R. C, Klevorick, A. K., Nelson, R. R., and Winter, S. G. 1987. Appropriating the returns from industrial research and development. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 3, 783–831. Another study reports that patents increased imitation costs by 30 percent for pharmaceuticals, 20 percent for chemicals, and 7 percent for electronics. See Mansfield, Schwartz, and Wagner, Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study.

111

You, К., and Katayama, S. 2005. Intellectual property rights protection and imitation: An empirical examination of Japanese FDI in China. Pacific Economic Review 10, 4, 591–604.

112

Gillen, D., and Lall, A. 2004. Competitive advantage of low cost carriers: Some implications for airports. Journal of Air Transport Management 10, 41–50. Bill Diffenderffer, the former head of Skybus, argues that Southwest no longer enjoys a wage advantage and that most of its profits in recent years are attributed to its fuel hedging program; Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.

113

Gittell, J. H. 2003. The Southwest Airlines way. New York: McGraw-Hill.

114

Moorman, R. W. Airlines: Valujet. ’Southwest without the frills’. Air Transport World 31, 9, September, 113; Valuejet Airlines. Kellogg School case KE1043. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University.

115

Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.

116

Bryant, A. 1995. Continental is dropping «Lite» service. New York Times, April 14.

117

Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.

118

Gittell, The Southwest Airlines way.

119

Beirne, M. 2008. Ted’s Dead. Brandweek.com, June 5.

120

Knowledge@Wharton. 2006. What Makes Southwest Airlines Fly.

121

Ibid.; Michaels, D. 2009. Airline sector’s woes slam a highflier. Wall Street Journal, July 2, A8.

122

Speed of Song. 2004. Reveries.com. 2004.

123

Doganis, R. 2001. The airline business in the 21st century. London: Routledge; Morrell, P. 2005. Airlines within airlines: An analysis of US network airline responses to low cost carriers. Journal of Air Transport Management 11, 303–312.

124

Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.

125

Carey, S. 2007. Canada’s Westjet flies high. Wall Street Journal, January 24.

126

Wingfield, K. 2002. My stupid business. Wall Street Journal, September 15–16, A9.

127

Renegade Ryanair. 2001. BusinessWeek, May 14.

128

Wal-mart with wings. 2006. BusinessWeek, November 27.

129

Renegade Ryanair. 2001.

130

Easy Jet UBS 2005 Transport Conference, London, September 19–20, 2005.

131

Gillen, D., and Lall, A. 2004. Competitive advantage of low cost carriers: some implications for airports. Journal of Air Transport Management 10, 41–50.

132

Thomas, G. 2007. Air Asia’s new worlds. Air Transport World, April.

133

Start up is chasing the long-haul dream. 2008. Financial Times, November 26, 25.

134

Ibid.; Michaels, Airline sector’s woes slam a highflier, A8.

135

Alaska Air makes moves in fight for low operating costs. 2006. Puget Sound Business Journal, December 4; How US Airways vaulted to first place. 2008. Wall Street Journal, July 22, D3.

136

Tedlow, R. 1990. New and improved: The story of mass marketing in America. New York: Basic Books; Ortega, B. 1998. In Sam we trust. New York: Times Business/Random House; Grant, R. M., and Neupert, К. E. 1996. Cases in contemporary strategy analysis. Maiden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 88; Stalk, G., Evans, P., and Shulman, L. E. 1992. Competing on capabilities: The new rules of corporate strategy. Harvard Business Review, March — April, 57–69.

137

Breen, B. 2007. The Wal-Mart of high tech? Fast Company 88, November.

138

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